Kid Zone | The Wonderful Creation And The Awesome Creator "Explore Science. Meet your Creator" |
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Creation Days | 1. Light | 2. Water-Air | 3. Land, Trees | 4. Sun, Moon | 5. Fish, Birds | 6. Animals, Man | 7. Sabbath
Creation | Physics | Chemistry | Geology | Geography | Astronomy | Biology | Human Body | Nutrition
Bible Science | Creation - Evolution | Geography Project | History | Maps | Games | Puzzles | School

Solar System | Atmosphere | The Weather
Mishkan Science | Camouflage | The Human Body
Nutrition | Water | Drugs and Alcohol

We will explore science from God's point of view. Beginning with nothing, each day of creation God created the next building block needed to make the rest of the universe.
On the first three days He created the containers needed to hold the systems. On the next three days He filled these places with life. On the final day, He started the social environment of love and community with a party.

1. Electromagnetism, Physics and Chemistry. God made light, atoms and molecules in our corner of the universe.
2. Space, Earth and Water. God created the three basic environments.
3. Geology and Botany. God separated the different environments and made the food supply.
4. Astronomy. God filled the sky.
5. Zoology (Fish and Birds). God filled the oceans and skies with life.
6. Biology (land Animals and Humans). God filled the land with life.
7. Spiritual, Social and Psychological Foundations. God had a party to celebrate.

Science and Technology
Science has a way of finding what might be truth in the physical universe. This is called the scientific method. With every discovery made by one scientist, other scientists must be able to do the following:

1. Duplicate the experiment
2. Make a guess about what should happen if they change the experiment.

Evolution
The fact is, evolution is based upon an interpretation of some observations. However, the quality of specimens observed are few and in poor condition and the evidence on which they base their conclusions are subject to many other interpretations.
For example, the difference in skeleton size of related animals is taken as proof of evolution. However, the same evidence could be used to show that they are just relatives (like different types of cats) or that they are built according to the same design.
Evolution requires millions of years for the theories to work.
Because they can make correct guesses about the unknown, such as the existence of objects in space, it is not proof that the theory of evolution works - it is proof that the physical laws of the universe are stable. Creationism does not discount physical laws, in fact YHWH is a God of law and order. Creation only disputes some of the meanings, theories and conclusions scientists place on what they observe especially when they try to extrapolate back to the past to say when and how the object was formed and how it behaved.
For example, if you go to a new planet one can expect to find a force called gravity because the planet has mass. Confirming the existence of gravity does not prove how or when the planet was formed, it proves that the theory of gravity is reliable.

Creation
How God created the world. Creationists and evolutionists believe different things about how the universe started. Evolutionists rely on the scientific method. Creationists claim that the scientific method is not good enough. It cannot measure the past accurately and it cannot measure some things that we cannot see. And God is so great, we cannot even think of a way to measure Him.
As we look at the wonderful things God created, I will try to point out facts that point to a creator.

Proof

This symbol will appear whenever we want to suggest an argument in favor of creation.

With each system or creature that God created, we will offer some basic arguments for you to think about as "proof" that they did not evolve over billions of years. Our proofs are based on the following:

- Designer. The complexity and other coincidences related to the item indicated that a designer must have planned it.
- Time. Many critical processes and all biological systems require a very short development time for success, but evolution requires a long time.
- Impossibility. There is no chance that the event would occur.
- Scientific Observations. The process was observed in nature or in the laboratory and it totally contradicts the theory of evolution.
- Scientific Experiments. A theory or discovery was tested in the laboratory and it contradicts the theory of evolution.

The Plan of Salvation
Before the world was created, God also designed a Plan of Salvation to recreate us and bring peace between earth and heaven when man sinned. This plan was encoded in the design of the creation and follows rules and laws just like any fundamental principles of science.

Light: The Foundations Of The Universe

Creation Day 1 (Sunday) | In the beginning there was nothing in our region of the universe but darkness. Then God spoke and the power of His voice produced electromagnetic waves that were the basis of all created things. When He spoke there was light.
Light | Where did the light come from if the sun was not created yet? In the process called nucleosynthesis, hydrogen can be burned to produce all the elements up to nickel. In this process light is produced. So on the first day Hydrogen, Helium and light were produced. Nucleosynthesis takes only 3 minutes, so there was more than enough time.
Our theory is that each day of creation corresponds to each period of the Periodic Table.

Physics: Explore a Tiny Universe

Physics | The study of the atoms and the basic laws of the universe that govern the relationship between different particles or bodies with mass.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Sunlight is composed of a continuous stream of electromagnetic radiation. Those between 320-2000 nanometers reach the earth, while the short wavelengths below 320 are absorbed by ozone and the longer wavelengths above 2000 are absorbed by carbon dioxide, water vapor and ozone..

Absorbed by CO2, H2O, Ozone | Light Reaches Earth (2000-320 nanometers) | Absorbed by Ozone
--- | --- | ---
Nonionizing Radiation | Ionizing Radiation
Long wavelength | Red | Orange | Yellow | Green | Blue | Indigo | Violet | Short wavelength
100km - 1mm | 30cm-1mm | 1mm-750 | 680 | 660 | 580 | 570 | 460 | 430 | 410 | 400 - 10 | 10 - .003 | <0.003
Radio waves | Microwave | Infrared | Visible Light (700-400 nanometers) | Ultraviolet | X-Ray | Gamma
Ears (sound) | Skin (heat) |  | Eyes (light, colors) |  | Invisible
Radio phone TV | Oven | Camera | Television, camera | Medical, military equipment
None | COBE | Spitzer | Hubble Space Telescope (HST) | GALEX | Chandra | CGRO
Speed of Light. 186,287 miles / second (299,792 km) Speed of Sound in Air. 761 miles per hour (330 meters per second). Mach Number: Measures the shock wave generated by an object in relation to the speed of sound Mach 1 is the speed of sound. | Subsonic: < Mach 1 Transonic: 1 (Speed of sound) Supersonic: > Mach 1 Hypersonic: > Mach 5
Light Year. The distance that light travels in one year (5,878,625,373,183.61 miles) 9,460,730,472,580.8 Km. It takes 499 seconds for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth. 1 MHz (megahertz) = 300 meters. 1GHz (gigahertz) = 30 centimeters.
Physicist. Studies physics | Artist. Paints, sculpts, draws objects of beauty
Snooperscope. Instrument for viewing infrared radiation | Sonograph. Records and analyses sound

United States Radio Spectrum Allocations
Instrument | Frequency (MHz)
--- | ---
Consumer Home Wireless | Infrared Remote | 38 kHz
Garage door opener | 40
Alarms | 40
Baby monitors | 49
Radio Controlled Toys | Walkie talkie | 49
Cars, airplanes, boats | 27 and 49
Advanced Models | 72 and 75
Radio | AM Radio | 535KHz - 1.7MHz
FM Radio | 88-108
Short Wave Radio | 5.9-26.1
CB Radio | 26.96-27.41
Deep space radio | 2290-2300
Old Analog TV and Services | VHF Analog TV (2-6) | 54-88
VHF Analog TV (7-13) | 174-220
UHF Analog TV (14-69) | 470-806
CATV (Cable) | 54-804
Wireless microphones | 700s
New Digital Services | Digital TV (2-13) | 54-470
Digital TV (14-51) | 470-608. 614-698
Mobile Phones (52-59) | 698-746
Emergency Services (60-69) | 746-806
Wireless Phone | Cell/Mobile Phone | 824-849
900MHz Cordless Phone | 900
Wireless Microphones | 900
Old Cordless Phone | 40-50
Wireless Data Networks | WiFi (IEEE 802.11) | 2.4 and 5 GHz
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) | 2.402-2.48 GHz
WiMax (IEEE 802.16) | 2-11 and 10-66 GHz
Wireless Business | Business Walkie Talkies | 151-158; 462-469
Wildlife tracking collars | 215-220
Air traffic control radar | 960 - 1215
Satellite Bands | L | Inmarsat, meterology, sea and air traffic, OmniSTAR | 1530-1650 MHz
Global Satellite Navigation Systems | GPS (NAVSTAR) | 1227, 1575, 1176
GLONASS | 1602-1615 and 1246-1256
Galileo | 1176, 1207, 1278, 1575
Digital Audio | WorldSpace | 1467-1492
S | XM, Sirius | 2.3 GHz
Arabsat, Insat, Indostar | 2535 - 2655 MHz
C | Communications | 3700 - 4200 MHz
C | Military downlink | 4500-4800 MHz
C | C band uplink | 5900-7000 MHz
Ku-1 | Direct to Home | FSS, Intelsat | 10.7 - 11.75 GHz
Ku-2 | DBS, Hotbird | 11.75 - 12.5 GHz
Ku-3 | Telecom | 12.5 - 12.75 GHz
Ku | Telecom Uplinks | 12.75 - 13.25 GHz 14-14.8 GHz 17.3-18.1 GHz
Ka | ACTS, Superbird, N-Star, Italsat, DFS Kopernikus | 18.3 - 21.2 GHz
K | Future telecom | 27.5 - 31 GHz
X | Military, NATO | 7200-7750 GHz
X | Military Uplinks | 7900-8400 GHz
UHF (300-3000 MHz) has the best coverage indoors and out especially 470-854 MHz. They travel farther and penetrate better in steel, concrete, large industrial or multi-story buildings. They are ideal for cellular phones
FCC (Federal Communications Commission) manages and distributes the frequencies for commercial use in the USA. IEEE manages global standards

Electromagnetic waves are the basis of all matter. Depending on the wave length, it can either be seen, felt, heard or is totally invisible to the human senses. Long waves (like radio waves) have low energy and are very harmless. God created ears so that we could recognize them. Human beings have also created other equipment that can decode these waves.
The shortest, higher energy waves are gamma rays. They are harmful and the ozone layer helps to keep them from striking the earth.
Humans have used the electromagnetic spectrum to invent all sorts of wireless communications applications. We send and receive information with signals using frequencies that cannot be interpreted by the eyes and ears. But the receivers can interpret these signals and convert them to frequencies that the human eye and ear can interpret.

Space Observatories
NASA's Four Great Space Observatories
# | Telescope | Spectrum
--- | --- | ---
1 | Hubble Space Telescope | HST | Visible, UV, infrared
2 | Compton Gamma Ray Telescope | CGRO | Gamma rays
3 | Chandra X-ray Observatory | CXO | X-rays
4 | Spitzer Space Telescope | SST SIRTF | Infrared
A series of four space observatories designed to conduct astronomical studies over many different wavelengths (visible, gamma rays, X-rays, and infrared).
Telescope | Measures
--- | ---
European Space Agency (ESA) Systems
International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) | X-Ray, Gamma
Swift Gamma Ray Burst Mission | UV, X-Ray, Gamma
X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission (XMM-Newton) | X-Ray
Other Observatories and Satellites
Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) | Ultraviolet
IMAGE | Solar wind
Wilkenson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) | Temperature fluctuations in the microwave background
Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) | Dark matter, black holes, neutron star
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) | Solar storms

Radio Waves. Radio waves are not as harmful to humans as other parts of the spectrum, but they have certain properties that make them ideal for transmitting information.

- Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) (30 Hz - 300 Hz).
- Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) (300 Hz - 3000 Hz).
- Very Low Frequency (VLF) (3 KHz - 30 KHz).
- Low Frequency (LF) (30 KHz - 300 KHz).
- Medium Frequency (MF) (300 KHz - 3 MHz).
- Medium Wave (500 KHz - 3 MHz). Travel for hundreds of miles and are perfect for AM radio.
- Short Wave (3 MHz - 30 MHz). Travel for thousands of miles, are reflected back from the ionosphere and are perfect for international radio stations.
- Very High Frequency Wave (VHF) (30 MHz - 300 MHz). Travel short distances.
  Ultra High Frequency Wave (UHF) (300 MHz - 900 MHz). Travel short distances.
  Both these frequencies are perfect for local communications used for FM radio and television stations. This ensures that frequencies can be reused by the same network in different areas without interference, while providing programming for the local audience.
- Super High Frequency Wave (SHF) (3000 MHz - 30000 MHz). Used for satellite communications. They are not impeded by the earth's ionosphere but travel along a line of sight and are affected by the weather.

Harnessing the Power of Creation
# | Creation | Technology
--- | --- | ---
1 | Light | Wireless technology
Atoms | Weapons, energy
2 | Sky | Communications
Water | Hydroelectric, dam
3 | Earth | Metallurgy, construction
Trees | Medicine, construction
4 | Sun, moon, stars | Light, navigation. Space exploration, energy
5 | Fish, birds | Carrier pigeons
6 | Animals | Transportation (horse, donkey, camel), military
Man | Slaves, military
7 | Sabbath | Vacation
Man has learned to harness the power of creation in reverse order.

Consumer Appliances. Engineers have divided up the frequencies of the radio wave and microwave spectrum into different channels for sending and receiving signals in consumer applications. They operate like one way private roads. A broadcaster can send signals to a receiver along this private electromagnetic highway on one channel (lane) and receive signals along another channel. The receiver translates the signals to pictures, sound, text or instructions. e.g. radio, television, phone, garage door opener.

Law and Order. We explored the application of the radio spectrum to demonstrate the creative power of law and order and organization. Marconi harnessed the potential of these waves when he realized that he could use them to transmit language. But if standards were not set about the use of these frequencies there would be interference and chaos and we could not have proceeded as far as we have done in making consumer applications that improve our daily lives. It took a leap in thinking to realize that one can harness the power of electromagnetic waves and it took rules to make them work better by setting boundaries. And it took a naming and identification system to further increase the capabilities. e.g. Boundaries allow us to broadcast on walkie-talkies without interference, but personal identification allows us to make private phone calls.
In the same way God set strict standards of behavior between human beings, without these there would be chaos and mistrust. The laws of God do not take away our freedoms. The laws of God create an environment where we can make great leaps forward to increase freedoms which make our lives much more happy and convenient. With these we can advance to a greater potential that is beyond our imagination. So if we embrace the basics of honesty, generosity, respect, contentment and faithfulness we can discover powers from God that we never thought were possible. God also gave names to each of His creation, setting up the possibility of personal communication.
So love can change things. Hope can see a future. Faith can also move mountains by talking to the personal God named YHWH.

Mishkan Bible Science: Quantum Physics And The Composition Of Matter.
The Bible models the relationships between the particles of matter better than all the current scientific theories. For years scientists believed that the electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom were the smallest objects in the universe. Now the Standard Model of Physics says that everything (all matter and radiation) in the universe is made up of 12 basic particles and 4 basic forces. However, they have not discovered the source of gravity or mass as of 2011.

Mishkan Unified Model of Everything | Standard Model of Particle Physics
--- | ---
Mishkan Physics Model |
--- | ---
Mishkan Chemistry Model |
Mishkan |
Quarks | Bosons
--- | ---
1 | 2 | 3
2.4 MeV
2/3 | u
1/2
Up
1270 MeV
2/3 | c
1/2
Charm
172.7 GeV
2/3 | t
1/2
Top
0
0 | γ
1
photon
4.8 MeV
-1/3 | d
1/2
Down
104 MeV
-1/3 | s
1/2
Strange
4200 MeV
-1/3 | b
1/2
Bottom
0
0 | g
1
gluon
<2.2 eV
0 | Ve
1/2
electron neutrino
<0.17 GeV
0 | Vμ
1/2
muon neutrino
<15.5 GeV
0 | Vt
1/2
tau neutrino
91.2 GeV
0 | Z 0
1
weak force
.511 MeV
-1 | e
1/2
electron
105.7 MeV
-1 | μ
1/2
muon
1777 MeV
-1 | t
1/2
tau
80.4 GeV
± | W±
1
weak force
Leptons
Key |
Mass (eV)
Charge | Symbol
Spin
Name Of Particle
The Mishkan Sanctuary Structure. » Orientation. Walls on north, south and west. Doors on east. » Most Holy Place. Three walls with 6 boards. The west wall has 2 boards supporting the corner. » Holy Place. 2 Walls with 14 boards. » Roof. 4 layers of different materials. • Layer 1. 10 panels of blue linen (5+5) • Layer 2. 11 panels of Goat's hair (5+6) • Layer 3. Ram skin dyed red • Layer 4. Porpoise skin » Bars and Rings. They hold the boards together. » Doors. Columns and curtains On the east side. • Door 1 (Holy Place). 5 columns. • Door 2 (Most Holy Place). 4 columns.
Creation. Did you know that over 3500 years ago Moses described a mathematical model of the objects and their relationships in the periodic table and the elements of particle physics in the Torah?

Neither the Standard Model nor the String Theory Models demonstrate the number of particles, relationship between the particles and the appearance of the particles like the Mishkan Model does. The Mishkan is the portable sanctuary that Moses built in the desert using a pattern given to him by God on Mount Sinai (Exodus 26). It is a model of the fundamental particles of hydrogen.

» Fermions. There are two fundamental particles. The Most Holy Place is the nucleus and the Holy Place is the orbiting electrons.

- Quarks (Nucleus). Quarks are subatomic particles bound together by the strong atomic force. They make protons and neutrons which combine with electrons to form atoms which are the most common building blocks of life. Atoms combine to create molecules, proteins, DNA, cells and biological systems.
  » Proton (3 Quarks and 3 Antiquarks). 3 boards on the north wall and 3 boards on the south wall of the Most Holy Place.
  » Neutron (3 Quarks and 3 Antiquarks).
- Leptons (Orbits). Leptons respond to the weak force, not the strong force and they make electrons and positrons.
  » Electron (?). The Mishkan predicts 14 particles and 14 antiparticles. 14 maximum orbits.

» Bosons. There are four fundamental forces which hold the fundamental particles together. In the Mishkan, the forces look like the objects in the structure.

- Strong Force (Gluon). A particle that transmits the strong nuclear force which glues quarks together into protons and neutrons. It is only found in the nucleus.
  » 6 Charged + 2 Neutral Particles. 6 boards of the west wall and 2 corner boards.
- Photon (Electromagnetic Force). Hold particles together in the atom.
  » Electric Current in A Magnetic Field (Line Through Rings). The bars and rings.
- Weak Force. Allows radioactive decay and holds protons and neutron in the nucleus and electrons in their orbits.
  » W+. The positively charged goat's hair layer. Asymmetric (5+6 panels).
  » W-. The negatively charged linen layer. Asymmetric (different materials)
  » Z0. This assymetric forces allows radioactive decay by letting particles out of the nucleus. It is the two doorways that let particles out of the nucleus. It is assymetric because of the 4 and 5 columns.
- Graviton. A hypothetical particle that causes the effects of gravity.
  » Ram Skin and Porpoise Skin Layers. The mishkan predicts that two forces model gravity and they are magnetic, radioactive and without mass.
- Higgs Boson. A hypothetical particle that causes the effects of mass.
  » Mass. The Mishkan does not support the idea of a single mass particle. Mass is pictured by at least four different structures that model inertia, center of gravity, attraction and volume.

- | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | -
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
7 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | East Outer Court
1 | Most Holy Place |  | Holy Place Mishkan 2-D Floor Plan Four Layer Fabric Roof (Shown Below) |
| 2
3
4
5
8 | 6
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 0 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 4 Layer Roof
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 0 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11
Roof Layer 3 (Ram Skin Dyed Red)
Roof Layer 4 (Porpoise Skin)

» The Mishkan Periodic Table. The Mishkan also models the Periodic table blocks and their size and properties.

- S Block (7x2) Metals. 7x2 gold plated walls of Most Holy Place, includes corner boards.
- P Block (6x6) Non-Metals, Gas. 6x6 room and west wall of Most Holy Place.
- D Block (4x10) Soft Metals. 4 layer, colorful, soft fabric roof. First layer is 10 panels.
- F Block (2x14) Metals. 2x14 gold plated walls of Holy Place.

Atoms. One of the smallest items in the universe is an atom. Over 100 atoms have been discovered and the smallest of these is hydrogen.
An atom is made up of a nucleus in the center, inside the nucleus are protons and neutrons. Circling the nucleus in orbit is the electron. The electron has a negative charge, the proton is positive and the neutron has no charge.

Light. Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic waves. These are made by photons. Photons are released when electrons move from one orbit to another.

Color. White light from the sun is made up of many colors. Seeing these colors depends on what the object does to the light that reaches it. The color of the object we see is the color of the light it reflects because the eye recognizes the primary colors of light. We see color by two methods:

- Subtraction. The object absorbs some color or subtracts it from the light and reflects the other colors that we see. This is how color pigments like paint and crayon work. Cyan absorbs red. Yellow absorbs blue. Magenta absorbs green.
- Addition. Color is created by adding the different colors of light. All other colors are absorbed. The combination of all colors is white because no light is absorbed. When all light is absorbed the color we see is black. Black objects should also be hotter because when they absorb light they are absorbing energy.

  Color | Reflects | Absorbs
  --- | --- | ---
  Red | Red | Blue, green | Cyan
  Blue | Blue | Red, green | Yellow
  Green | Green | Red, blue | Magenta
  Cyan | Blue, green | Red | Red
  Yellow | Red, green | Blue | Blue
  Magenta | Red, blue | Green | Green
  White | Red, blue, green | - | Black
  Black | - | Red, blue, green | White
  Brown | Red, green | Blue, some red and green
  Color science is used to illustrate salvation laws

Primary Colors. In all color schemes it takes three primary colors to make all colors. But primary colors cannot be formed by mixing other colors. How color is made depends on the color system or whether we are using pigments or light.

- Light (Additive Color)
  Red, green and blue are the primary colors of light. Mixing any two or more colors gives a brighter color or more light. Red and blue make magenta (light purple). Green and red make yellow. Green and blue make cyan (light blue). White is the combination of all colors of light. Black is the absence of all light.

  Red | Yellow | Green | Cyan | Blue | Magenta | Red | White

- Pigments (Subtractive Color)
  Red, blue and yellow are the three classic primary colors. They are used to make secondary colors. Red and yellow make orange. Blue and yellow make green. Red and blue make purple. White is the combination of all colors. Black is the absence of all colors.

  Red | Orange | Yellow | Green | Blue | Purple | Red | White

- Paints, inks, dyes (Subtractive Color)
  Cyan, magenta and yellow are the three primary colors. Cyan and magenta make blue. Cyan and yellow make green. Magenta and yellow make red.

  Yellow | Green | Cyan | Blue | Magenta | Red | Yellow | Black

Red | Yellow | Green
--- | --- | ---
White | Cyan
Magenta | Blue

The additive and subtractive color systems are related. Two primary colors from one system creates a primary color in the other system. This is the combination of both.

White | Yellow | Green | Cyan | Blue | Magenta | Red | Yellow | Green | Black
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---

Color Wheel. An arrangement of colors in a circle.

Red | Yellow | Green
--- | --- | ---
Cyan | Blue | Magenta

Complementary Color. Colors directly opposite each other on the color wheel.
Mixing two different complementary colors of light gives white light. If a color is absorbed, what your eye will see is the complementary color, which will be a mixture of all the light that is not absorbed.
Prism. A prism is a three dimensional glass pyramid that separates white light into its component colors to form a rainbow. White light enters the prism and each color bends at a different angle, separating the colors. Different objects bend light at a different angle. So when light travels from air through glass or water the light exits at a different angle.
Rainbow. A rainbow is caused when white light is broken up into its component colors as it passes from the air through water droplets which act like a prism. The classic colors of the rainbow are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

White | Red | Orange | Yellow | Green | Blue | Indigo | Violet | Black
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---

See how the eye processes color and the problems that result in color deficiency.

Imagine | Our visible light is a fairly narrow frequency band. Suppose God and the angels have the ability to operate at other frequencies so that we can not see them. God said that He has to separate Himself from us physically because close contact would destroy us. Do you suppose God normally operates above the gamma ray frequencies? Suppose He can change frequencies at will so that He can be visible and invisible as He chooses?

What do you think? | Since God created the sun, moon and stars on the fourth day, the light that He made on the first day may have been caused by photons. But since God is a source of light, his presence may have caused the light. However, the universe is bathed in at least two other kinds of energy and it has a microwave background radiation. Are these or the microwave radiation the source of light on the first day? If so, then we have lost the ability to detect this energy with our eyes. Sin made us partially blind.

Forces of Attraction

Did you know that God used the science of color combination to illustrate the Plan of Salvation? He will take us from darkness to light through the Word. The Word He spoke to implement the plan was Jesus Christ. He was also the One Who created the world and He will recreate it again.

| Atom
Cell
Solar System
Galaxy
Family
System | Center | Orbit | Force
--- | --- | --- | ---
Atom | Nucleus | Electrons | Strong
Cell | Nucleus | Organelles | Electromagnetic
Solar System | Star | Planets | Gravity
Galaxy | Nucleus | Solar system | Gravity
Family | Mother and Father | Children | Love
Life | God | Creation | Love
Designer | The fact that solar systems, galaxies and cells follow this structure points to a designer. Each has a central core which is encircled by other bodies in orbit. You would not expect such order from random events.

Different types of forces are used to hold different systems together:

1. Strong force. Also called the nuclear force, it holds the nucleus of an atom together against the strong forces of repulsion from the protons.
2. Weak force. The weak force holds protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
3. Electromagnetic force. Holds several atoms together when they create a molecule.
4. Gravity. Is the weakest force. It holds large objects together. It keeps the planets in orbit and it keeps you from flying off the earth.
5. Love. Holds people and intelligent life together. It is the character that is most like Him that God is trying to teach us.
   The Bible simply says that "God is Love".

Electricity
Electricity is produced when the atoms produce a flow of electrons in one direction.

Magnets
A magnetic force is created in another direction when an electrical force is turned on.

Chemistry: Atoms and Molecules
One of the most important things in chemistry is the periodic table of elements. It helps us to know how the elements will react.
Periodic Law: When elements (atoms) are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight their properties are repeated periodically.
The periodic table is divided into 7 rows called "periods" and 18 columns called "groups or families".

Chemistry | The process of combining atoms to form new solids, liquids and gases.

Groups Or Families. Columns of elements that are related by the number of valence electrons in their outer shell. There are three grouping systems.

- New IUPAC. Numbers the families from 1 to 18.
- Old IUPAC (Europe). "S" and "P" are numbered 1A-8A. "D" and "F" are numbered 1B-8B.
- CAS (North America). Numbered 1A-8A and 1B-8B.

a | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18
b | 1A | 2A | 3B | 4B | 5B | 6B | 7B | 8 | 1B | 2B | 3A | 4A | 5A | 6A | 7A | 8A
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
c | 1A | 2A | 3A | 4A | 5A | 6A | 7A | 8A | 1B | 2B | 3B | 4B | 5B | 6B | 7B | 8B
- | +1 | +2 | +3 | (2-4) | (2-5) | (2-6) | (2-7) | +2 or +3 | (1-2) | 2 | +3 | ±4 | -3 | -2 | -1 | 0
- | S (7x2) | F | D Block (Transition Elements) (4x10) | P Block (6x6)
1 | ⚽ 1 H 1.008 | ⚽ 2 He 4.003 | The Periodic Table of Elements | ⚽ 2 He 4.003
2 | ♼ 3 Li 6.941 | ⚽ 4 Be 9.012 |
Key | 1 | Atomic number. Number of protons or electrons
H | Symbol for the element. This is Hydrogen.
1.008 | Atomic weight.
| ⚽ 5 B 10.81 | ⚽ 6 C 12.01 | ⚽ 7 N 14.01 | ♼ 8 O 16.00 | 9 F 19.00 | ⚽ 10 Ne 20.18
3 | ♼ 11 Na 22.99 | ♼ 12 Mg 24.31 | ♼ 13 Al 26.98 | ⚽ 14 Si 28.09 | ⚽ 15 P 30.97 | ⚽ 16 S 32.06 | ⚽ 17 Cl 35.45 | ⚽ 18 Ar 39.95
4 | 19 K 39.10 | ♼ 20 Ca 40.08 | 21 Sc 44.96 | ♼ 22 Ti 47.88 | 23 V 50.94 | ♺ 24 Cr 52.00 | ♼ 25 Mn 54.94 | ♻ 26 Fe 55.85 | ♻ 27 Co 58.93 | ♻ 28 Ni 58.70 | ⚽ 29 Cu 63.55 | ⚽ 30 Zn 65.38 | ⚽ 31 Ga 69.72 | ⚽ 32 Ge 72.59 | ⚽ 33 As 74.92 | ⚽ 34 Se 78.96 | ⚽ 35 Br 79.90 | ⚽ 36 Kr 83.80
5 | 37 Rb 85.47 | ♼ 38 Sr 87.62 | 39 Y 88.91 | ♼ 40 Zr 91.22 | 41 Nb 92.91 | ♼42 Mo 95.94 | 43 ☢Tc 97.90 | ♼ 44 Ru 101.1 | ♼ 45 Rh 102.9 | ♼ 46 Pd 106.4 | ⚽ 47 Ag 107.9 | ⚽ 48 Cd 112.4 | ⚽ 49 In 114.8 | ♼ 50 Sn 118.7 | ⚽ 51 Sb 121.8 | ⚽ 52 Te 127.6 | 53 I 126.9 | ⚽ 54 Xe 131.3
6 | 55 Cs 132.9 | ♼ 56 Ba 137.3 |  | 71 Lu 175 | 72 Hf 178.5 | 73 Ta 180.9 | ♼ 74 W 183.9 | 75 Re 186.2 | ♼ 76 Os 190.2 | ♼ 77 Ir 192.2 | ♼ 78 Pt 195.1 | ⚽ 79 Au 197.0 | ⚽ 80 Hg 200.6 | ⚽ 81 Tl 204.4 | ⚽ 82 Pb 207.2 | ⚽ 83 Bi 209.0 | 84 ☢Po 209 | 85 ☢At 210 | 86 ☢Rn 222
7 | 87 ☢Fr 223 | 88 ☢Ra 226 | 103 ☢Lr 262.11 | 104 ☢Rf 265.12 | 105 ☢Db 268.13 | 106 ☢Sg 271.13 | 107 ☢Bh 270 | 108 ☢Hs 277.15 | 109 ☢Mt 276.15 | 110 ☢Ds 281.16 | 111 ☢Rg 280.16 | 112 ☢Cn 285.17 | 113 ☢Uut 284.18 | 114 ☢Fl 289.19 | 115 ☢Uup 288 | 116 ☢Lv 293 | 117 ☢Uus 294 | 118 ☢Uuo 294
Lanthanide (Magnetic) | 6 | 57 La 138.9 | ♼ 58 Ce 140.1 | 59 Pr 140.9 | ♼ 60 Nd 144.2 | 61 Pm 145 | ♼ 62 Sm 150.4 | ♼ 63 Eu 152.0 | ♻ 64 Gd 157.3 | ♼ 65 Tb 158.9 | ♼ 66 Dy 162.5 | ♼ 67 Ho 164.9 | ♼ 68 Er 167.3 | ♼ 69 Tm 168.9 | 70 Yb 173.0 | F Block (2x14)
Actinide | 7 | 89 ☢Ac 227 | 90 ☢Th 232 | 91 ☢Pa 231 | 92 ☢U 238 | 93 ☢Np 237 | 94 ☢Pu 244 | 95 ☢Am 243 | 96 ☢Cm 247 | 97 ☢Bk 247 | 98 ☢Cf 251 | 99 ☢Es 252 | 100 ☢Fm 257 | 101 ☢Md 258 | 102 ☢No 259
Color Key | Box | Metals | Magnetic | ☢Radioactive | Soft Metals | Metalloid | Non-Metals
Text | Solid Metals (Precious Metals) | Liquid | Gas | Life
Magnet Type | ♼ Paramagnetic (Unpaired Electrons) | ⚽ Diamagnetic (Paired d-Electrons)
♻ Ferromagnetic | ♺ AntiFerromagnetic | ♽ Pemanent Magnet: NdFeB - SmCo - AlNiCo - Ceramic/Ferrite (FeO, BaCO3, SrCO3)
Metals | Alkali Metals | React readily with non-metals
Alkaline Earth | Alkaline
Transitional | Less reactive and rare earth metals
» | Lanthanide | Rare earth. Form magnetic alloys
» | Actinide | Rare earth, radioactive, dense metals
Non-Metals | Noble Gas | The noble gases are relatively inert
Halogens | Reactive nonmetals which have seven valence electrons
Non-Metals | Many are gases and liquids
Metalloids | Semi metals with characteristics of metals and non-metals
Metals: They are located on the left side of the table. They are solids at room temperature (except mercury). Non-Metals: The nonmetals are located on the upper right side of the periodic table Transition Elements: These are defined as those that have partially filled "d" orbitals either in the element or any of its compounds. These partially filled "d" orbitals are responsible for the color generating property of the transition elements. Rare Earth Elements (Metals). They are special transition metals that are magnetic or radioactive. Life Elements. These are necessary for living systems and have important cycles to replenish them. The Sanctuary Chemistry. A pattern of the structure of the periodic table is in the sanctuary that Moses built.
Group | Outer Shell | Characteristic |
Shell | Orbit | Electrons | Block
--- | --- | --- | ---
S | 1 | 2 | 2 | Metal
P | 3 | 6 | 8 | Non-metal
D | 5 | 10 | 18 | Transition
F | 7 | 14 | 32 | Rare earth
G | 9 | 18 | 50 | Theoretical
A shell has a fixed number of orbits, each has two electrons. Shells fill in this order (2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32):
| 1S
--- | ---
| 2S
| 2P | 3S
| 3P | 4S
| 3D | 4P | 5S
| 4D | 5P | 6S
4F | 5D | 6P | 7S
5F | 6D | 7P |
1s2 2s2, 2p6 3s2, 3p6 4s2, 3d10, 4p6 5s2, 4d10, 5p6 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6
S | 1A | +1 | s1 | Alkali metals give up one electron
2A | +2 | s2 | Alkaline earth metals
D | 3A-2B | Transition metals with valence electrons in two shells instead of one
» | 3A | +3 | 4s23d1 | Scandium
» | 4A | +2-4 | 4s23d2 | Titanium
» | 5A | +2-5 | 4s23d3 | Vanadium
» | 6A | +2-6 | 4s23d5 | Chromium
» | 7A | +2-7 | 4s23d5 | Manganese
» | 8A | +2-3 | 4s23d6-8 | Iron (4s23d6), cobalt (4s23d7), nickel (4s23d8)
» | 1B | +1-2 | 3d104s1 | Copper. This is the coinage metals group
» | 2B | +2 | 3d104s2 | Zinc
P | 3B | +3 | s2p1 | The Boron group, earth metals, whistogens
4B | ±4 | s2p2 | The Carbon group are the least reactive. They share 4 electrons
5B | -3 | s2p3 | The Nitrogen Group, Pnicogens or pnictogens. Phosphorous makes fertilizer, bones
6B | -2 | s2p4 | Chalcogens. The acid formers
7B | -1 | s2p5 | Halogens. They are salt formers that take one electron
8B | 0 | s2p6 | Noble gases. Their valence shells are full. Helium has 2 ("S"), the rest 8 ("S"+"P")
F | » | 3A | +3 | 4d105p66s24f14 | Lanthanides. Very reactive metals with magnetic properties that fill the 4f orbital
» | 3A- | +3 | 5d106p67s25f14 | Actinides. Very reactive metals with radioactive properties that fill the 5f orbital 3A: (Np Pi Am Cm Bk) 4A: Th 5A: Pa 6A: U
G | 8s25g186f147d10 | Element 121-138. These have never been synthesized and may be too unstable

Periods. These are the seven rows. They have the same number of electron shells.
Electrons. The number of electrons that orbit the nucleus are equal to the atomic number.

Block | Rows | Column | Property
--- | --- | --- | ---
S | 7 | 2 | Hard Metals
P | 6 | 6 | Non-Metals
D | 4 | 10 | Soft Metals
F | 2 | 14 | Hard Metals

Group (New IUPAC Number). Number of electrons in the outer shells.
Block. They have the same orbiting shell and the same set of groups.
Shell. The electrons orbit singly or in pairs in different levels called shells. They are named by a series of four letters, "S", "P", "D", and "F". By looking at the periodic table you can tell which type of orbit is probably in the outermost valence shell. Metals are in the "S" block, transition metals are in the "D" block, non-metals are in the "P" block and the rare earth elements are in the "F" block. These shells are filled according to rules.

- Electrons fill orbits of lower energy first.
- Pauli Exclusion Principle. Two electrons in the same orbit must have opposite spins.
- Hund's Rule. Electrons fill empty orbits before pairing up.
- Octet Rule. Atoms become especially stable when their valence shells are full. They tend to want 8 electrons in their outer shell and they will gain, share or lose electrons to complete this octet. Those with less than 4 lose their electrons, those with 4 share electrons and those greater than 4 tend to gain electrons to complete the octet.

Valence Shell. The outermost "s" and "p" orbit shells of an atom or the "d" shells in transition metals. It determines how atoms behave in a reaction. Here, electrons are gained, shared or lost to form chemical bonds because the elements are trying to achieve a status in which their shells are complete. Elements with the same number of valence electrons have the same properties. Each element has a number of valence electrons equal to its group number.
Transition Elements. The transition metals are the only elements that fill the "d" orbitals. They have the same arrangement of outer electrons, but the lower "3d" orbitals are different. The ten "3d" orbitals are filled before the lower "s" orbital.
Gold Standards: 24 carat (karat) gold is 99.99% pure gold. 22 carat gold is 91.6% gold. 12 carat is 50% gold
Silver Standards: Fine silver is 99.9% silver. Britannia (95.84% silver and 4.16% copper). Mexican (95% silver and 5% copper). Sterling (92.5% silver and 7.5% copper). Coin silver (90% silver and 10% copper).
Other precious metals: Platinum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium. Radioactive : Plutonium, uranium.
Metal Alloys: Mixture of metals that increases their hardness and durability.
Brass is a mixture of copper and Zinc. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin.
Iron. There are three basic grades of iron with varying degrees of brittleness and hardness.
• Pig Iron. Hard, brittle, raw iron with about 3.5% carbon made by melting iron ore with limestone and coke.
Iron (90% or more), carbon (4-5%), manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon (roughly 3% in total).
• Wrought Iron. This is a softer, pure iron with about 0.15% carbon and some impurities.
• Cast Iron. Purified pig iron. 95% iron, 2.1-4% carbon and 1-3% silicon.
Steel is a mixture of iron and up to 5.1% carbon. Stainless steel also includes chromium and nickel.
Chemist. Creates or applies chemicals for treating various systems such as drinking water, manufacturing.
Forensic Chemist. Crime scene investigation by analyzing chemical compounds.
Pharmacist. Dispenses drugs for health care.
Pyrotechnics. The science and art of making fireworks.

The Periodic Table of Elements Electron Configuration
a | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18
b | 1A | 2A | 3B | 4B | 5B | 6B | 7B | 8 | 1B | 2B | 3A | 4A | 5A | 6A | 7A | 8A
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
c | S1 | S2 | D1 | D2 | D3 | D4 | D5 | D6 | D7 | D8 | D9 | D10 | P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | P5 | P6
- | S (7x2) | F | D Block (Transition Elements) (4x10) | P Block (6x6)
1 | 1 H 1s1 | 2 He 1s2 |
1 | 1s |  |  | Ground State Electrons | 1s2 2s2, 2p6 3s2, 3p6 4s2, 3d10, 4p6 5s2, 4d10, 5p6 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6 |
1 |  |  |
2 | 3 |  |  |
4 | 5 | 7 |  |  |
6 | 8 | 10 | 13 |  |  |
9 | 11 | 14 | 17 | 20 |  |
12 | 15 | 18 | 21 | 23 | 25 |
16 | 19 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 27 | 28
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
2 | 2s | 2p |  |
3 | 3s | 3p | 3d |  |
4 | 4s | 4p | 4d | 4f |  |
5 | 5s | 5p | 5d | 5f | 5g |  |
6 | 6s | 6p | 6d | 6f | 6g | 6h |  | Excited State Electrons
7 | 7s | 7p | 7d | 7f | 7g | 7h | 7i |
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
| 8s | 8p | 8d | 8f | 8g | 8h | 8i | 8j
|  | 2 He 4.003
2 | 3 Li 2s1 | 4 Be 2s2 | 5 B 2p1 | 6 C 2p2 | 7 N 2p3 | 8 O 2p4 | 9 F 2p5 | 10 Ne 2p6
3 | 11 Na 3s1 | 12 Mg 3s2 | 13 Al 3p1 | 14 Si 3p2 | 15 P 3p3 | 16 S 3p4 | 17 Cl 3p5 | 18 Ar 3p6
4 | 19 K 4s1 | 20 Ca 4s2 | 21 Sc 3d1 | 22 Ti 3d2 | 23 V 3d3 | 24 Cr 4s1 3d5 | 25 Mn 3d5 | 26 Fe 3d6 | 27 Co 3d7 | 28 Ni 4s1 3d9 ? | 29 Cu 4s1 3d10 | 30 Zn 3d10 | 31 Ga 4p1 | 32 Ge 4p2 | 33 As 4p3 | 34 Se 4p4 | 35 Br 4p5 | 36 Kr 4p6
5 | 37 Rb 5s1 | 38 Sr 5s2 | 39 Y 4d1 | 40 Zr 4d2 | 41 Nb 5s14d4 | 42 Mo 5s1 4d5 | 43 Tc 4d5 | 44 Ru 5s14d7 | 45 Rh 5s14d8 | 46 Pd 5s14d10 | 47 Ag 5s14d10 | 48 Cd 4d10 | 49 In 5P1 | 50 Sn 5P2 | 51 Sb 5P3 | 52 Te 5P4 | 53 I 5P5 | 54 Xe 5P6
6 | 55 Cs 6s1 | 56 Ba 6s2 | 4F14 | 71 Lu 5d1 | 72 Hf 5d2 | 73 Ta 5d3 | 74 W 5d4 | 75 Re 5d5 | 76 Os 5d6 | 77 Ir 5d7 | 78 Pt 6s15d9 | 79 Au 6s15d10 | 80 Hg 5d10 | 81 Tl 6p1 | 82 Pb 6p2 | 83 Bi 6p3 | 84 Po 6p4 | 85 At 6p5 | 86 Rn 6p6
7 | 87 Fr 7s1 | 88 Ra 7s2 | 5f14 | 103 Lr 7p1 | 104 Rf 6d2 | 105 Db 6d3 | 106 Sg 6d4 | 107 Bh 6d5 | 108 Hs 6d6 | 109 Mt 6d7 | 110 Ds 6d8 | 111 Rg 6d9 | 112 Cn 6d10 | 113 Uut 7p1 | 114 Fl 7p2 | 115 Uup 7p3 | 116 Lv 7p4 | 117 Uus 7p5 | 118 Uuo 7p6
Lanthanide (Magnetic) | 6 | 57 La 5d1 | 58 Ce 4f15d1 | 59 Pr 4f3 | 60 Nd 4f4 | 61 Pm 4f5 | 62 Sm 4f6 | 63 Eu 4f7 | 64 Gd 4f75d1 | 65 Tb 4f9 | 66 Dy 4f10 | 67 Ho 4f11 | 68 Er 4f12 | 69 Tm 4f13 | 70 Yb 4f14 | F Block (2x14)
Actinide | 7 | 89 Ac 6d1 | 90 Th 6d2 | 91 Pa 5f26d1 | 92 U 5f36d1 | 93 Np 5f46d1 | 94 Pu 5f6 | 95 Am 5f7 | 96 Cm 5f76d1 | 97 Bk 5f9 | 98 Cf 5f10 | 99 Es 5f11 | 100 Fm 5f12 | 101 Md 5f13 | 102 No 5f14

Magnet
Elements have magnetic properties based on the pairing of electrons in the outer shell. Unpaired electrons can spin in any direction and are attracted to an external magnetic field.

- Paramagnetic. Atom has one or more unpaired electrons. Since "d" and "f" orbits can have more unpaired electrons ("5" or "7") they are stronger magnets than the "s" or "p" orbits"
  - Ferromagnetic. Paramagnetic atoms which are clustered display bulk magnetic behavior. These retain the magnetism when the external magnetic field is removed.
  - Antiferromgnetic.
  - Permanent Magnets.
    - Rare Earth Magnets. neodymium magnets and samarium-cobalt magnets. Difficult to demagnetize. 1. Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB). This type of magnet is composed of rare earth magnetic material, and has a high coercive force. They have an extremely high energy product range, up to 50 MGOe. Because of this high product energy level, they can usually be manufactured to be small and compact in size. However, NdFeB magnets have low mechanical strength, tend to be brittle, and low corrosion-resistance if left uncoated. If treated with gold, iron, or nickel plating, they can be used in many applications. They are very strong magnets and are difficult to demagnetize. 2. Samarium Cobalt (SmCo). Like NdFeB magnets, SmCo magnets are also very strong and difficult to demagnetize. They are also highly oxidation-resistant and temperature resistant, withstanding temperatures up to 300 degrees Celsius. Two different groups of SmCo magnets exist, divided based on their product energy range. The first series (Sm1Co5) has an energy product range of 15-22 MGOe. The second series (Sm2Co17) has a range that falls between 22 and 30 MGOe. However, they can be expensive and have low-mechanical strength.
    - Ceramic or Ferrite Magnets. Comprised of sintered iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate, ceramic (or ferrite) magnets are typically inexpensive and easily produced, either through sintering or pressing. However, because these magnets tend to be brittle, they require grinding using a diamond wheel. They are one of the most commonly used types of magnet, and are strong and is not easy to demagnetize.
    - AlNiCo Magnets. Can be demagnetized.
    - Electromagnet. Electromagnets are made by winding a wire into multiple loops around a core material—this formation is known as a solenoid. To magnetize electromagnets, an electrical current is passed through the solenoid to create a magnetic field. The field is strongest on the inside of the coil, and the strength of the field is proportionate to the number of loops and the strength of the current. The material at the center of the coil, the core of the solenoid, can also affect the strength of an electromagnet. If a wire is wrapped around a nonmagnetic material, such as a piece of wood, the overall magnetic field will not be very strong. However, if the core is composed of ferromagnetic material, such as iron, the strength of the magnet will dramatically increase.
    - Temporary Magnets. Temporary magnets can vary in composition, as they are essentially any material that behaves like a permanent magnethttp://www.thomasnet.com/images/suppliers-small.png when in the presence of a magnetic field. Soft iron devices, such as paper clips, are often temporary magnets.
  Atoms on the left side of the periodic table tend to be paramagnetic. Those on the right are more diamagnetic.
  Exeptions: Molecular Oxygen (O2) is paramegnetic. Elements with all d-electrons paired are diamagnetic, but some elements do not have their unpaired electrons in a "d" orbit (Sc3+, Ti4+, Zn2+, Cu+).
- Diamagnetic. Atom has paired electrons. Transition metals have no unpaired electrons. They are repelled by a magnetic field.
- .

Temperature is generated by the movement of atoms. Absolute Zero (0ºK) (-459.67ºF and -273.15ºC) is the temperature when no molecular activity occurs and the volume of the "perfect gas" vanishes.

Experiment | Bake a cake. The air bubbles that are released when the baking powder reacts with the flour causes the cake to rise. Cooking is chemistry.

Two or more atoms form a molecule. Knowing how these will react is the study of Chemistry.

Designer | Stereochemistry. Did you know that complex molecules can have a mirror image twin. They look the same and react differently. The body is able to recognize them because they are oriented in the wrong direction. It is like trying to put a left handed glove on the right hand. The body uses the left handed versions while laboratory chemical reaction always produces the right handed version. When we die, these chemicals change to the right hand versions.
So how did random chemical reactions in nature consistently produce thousands of impossible compounds needed for life?

Biological systems are made from very complicated chemical reactions involving millions of chemicals and large molecules with many atoms. These systems are so complex and specific that a malfunction of any one chemical in millions can damage the creature.
The most important molecule is water. It is made from two hydrogen and one oxygen atom (H2O).
Some rare elements are expensive (gold (Au), silver (Ag), Copper (Cu) and Platinum (Pt)). They are used to make jewelry and coins.
Other elements like Uranium (U) are precious because they are needed for nuclear weapons.

Color
Color can be caused by many different interactions of light or heat with different elements. Metal ions, oxides, sulfides, halides and chlorides of metals and organic compounds are used as coloring agents. Metal oxides are generally used in glass and metal chlorides in fireworks.
The transition metals tend to be coloring elements because the electrons in their outer "d" orbit absorb light to move from one orbit to another.

- Idiochromatic ("Self-colored"). The chemical composition of the material.
- Allochromatic ("Other-colored"). Impurities, defects or substition of an element.
- Pseudochromatic ("False color"). Color is caused by the crystal structure. e.g. Water or trapped air can act like a prism.
- Conjugated Bonds. Large molecules, especially of carbon rings joined with nitrogen and oxygen, share electrons in single and double bonds. These shared electrons are more sensitive to light. e.g. Organic dyes, pigments, most plant and animal colors, chlorophyl, blood, lapis lazuli, fabric brighteners, fireflies.
  Metalo-Organic Compounds. Three very important compounds are used to transport oxygen in various living systems. The colors of these compounds are associated with the metal they contain.
  - Hemoglobin (Fe). Transports oxygens in animals. It is bright red when it carries oxygen and dark red when it is not.
    » Myoglobin (Fe). Stores oxygen in muscle, not transports it. Has red or dark grey color.
    » Hemerythrin (Fe-O-Fe). Oxygen transport in sipunculids, brachiopods, priapulids and annelids. It gives a pink or violet color when oxygenated and clear when it is not.
    » Leghemoglobin (Fe). Binds oxygen to protect nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legumes.
  - Hemocyanin (Cu). The second most common oxygen transporting protein found in nature. It is in the blood of arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans) and molluscs. It is pale yellow when not combined with oxygen, and blue when combined with oxygen.
  - Chlorophyll (Mg). A green compound involved in the process of photosynthesis.
  - Vanabins (V). In the blood of sea squirts may be the oxygen carriers.
  - Pinnaglobin (Mn). Brown color. Only seen in the mollusk Pinna squamosa.

Color | Crystals | Glass | Fireworks | Artificial Organic | Natural Organic
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Red | Cr3+, Mn3+, Mn2+ | Cd | Au, Cu, Se | Sr, Li | C20H6I4Na2O5H20 Erythrosine (Red 3) | Lycopene (C40H56) Betalains (beets)
Pink | Mn2+, Ti4+ | Mn, Li | Se, Co + borosilicates | -
Pink-Orange | - | Mn | - | - | C18H14N2Na2O8S2 Allura Red (Red 40) | C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 Hemoglobin Phaeomelanin
Reddish Brown | Fe2+, Co2+ | - | - | -
Brown | Fe2+, Ce3+ Pr3+ Nd3+ | V, Fe | Carbon oxides, Iron oxides, S | - | C17H18N4Na2O9S2 (Brown 3) | Tannin (C76H52O46) Melanin, Eumelanin
Orange | Fe3+, Ce3+ Pr3+ Nd3+ | Cd | Se | Ca | C16H10N2O7S2Na2 Acid orange (Orange G) | Carotene (C40H56) Crocine (C44H64O24) saffron
Amber | Fe3+ | - | Carbon oxides, Fe, S | - | C16H9N4 Na3O9S2 Tartrazine (Yellow 5) | Lipofuscin (C42H58NO)
Gold | - | - | - | Fe, C | C18H9N Na2O8S2 Quinoline (Yellow 13) | Lutein (C40H56O2)
Yellow | Fe3+,Fe2+,Ni2+, UO22+ | N,V,Cd,As | Se, Pb + Sb | Na
Yellow Green | Mn2+ | Zn, Ni, Cd | Uranium | - | C37H34N2O10S3Na2 Fast Green FCF (Green 3) | C55H72O5N4Mg Chlorophyll
Green | Cr3+, Mn3+, V3+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Fe2+ | Cd, Li, Be | Cu, Iron oxide, Co + iodides | Cu, Ba
Forest Green | - | Cr, Fe | - | C27H25N2NaO7S2 Food Green S (Green 4)
Olive Green | Ti4+ | - | - | -
Blue | Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, VO2+, Ti3+ | Cu | - | C37H34N2Na2O9S3 Brilliant Blue (Blue 1) | Hemocyanin
Blue | U4+, Co2+ | Cu, Ti, Be | Copper oxide | Cu
Dark Blue | - | S | Cobalt oxide | - | C16H10N2O2 Indigo Blue | Anthocyanins (C15H8O6-sugar) (cyanidin)
Purple | Fe3+ | Fe | Mn oxide | K, Sr+Cu | - | Anthocyanins (C15H9O6-sugar) (cyanidin)
Silver | - | - | - | Al, Mg, Ti | -
Black | - | Iron oxide | Mn + Co + Fe | - | C28H17N5Na4O14S4 | Hemerythrin
White | - | Titanium | Sb, Sn | Mg, Al, Ba | TiO2
Isomers (Twins). Carotene and lycopene have the same chemical formula, but a different structure. Stereoisomers (Chemical Identical Twins). Same formula and structure but mirror images | Plant Source. Animal Source

Iris | Pink | Violet | Grey | Blue |  | Green | Amber | Hazel | Brown | Black
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Front | No Pigment | Lipofuscin | Melanin
Back | Blood | No Pigment | Melanin

Eye Color. Eye color is a complex interaction of at least two genes and the concentration of pigments on the front and back surface of the iris and the natural grey color of the iris and the size and spacing of the fibers in the eye. Genes also create the flecks, specks and rings that dot the eyes.
Melanin, a brown pigment which is controlled by the brown-blue gene on chromosome 15 and the green-blue gene on chromosome 19, is mainly responsible for the range in eye color.
Lipofuscin, a yellow pigment produced by aging, is responsible for green and amber eyes. The natural color of the iris and the blood vessels at the back of the eye also contribute to the color.

- Grey. No melanin, the natural color of the iris tissue.
- Violet and Pink. No melanin, the natural color of the iris tissue and the red blood vessels.
- Blue. Little lipofuscin and little to no melanin.
- Green. Some melanin and a lot of lipofuscin. These eyes can look golden.
- Amber. High concentration of lipofuscin.
- Hazel. A mixture of pigments in several parts of the eye.
- Brown. High concentration of melanin.
- Dark Brown - Black. Highest concentration of melanin, probably on both surfaces of the iris.

In the womb, all babies of all races have grey eyes. Eye color develops after birth when the melanin is exposed to light.

Hair And Skin Color. Human skin color is due to melanin, but hair color is due to Eumelanin for black and brown colors and Phaeomelanin for red and yellow colors. The low concentration or absence of either pigment causes gray or white hair.
Birds. Feather color is due to the structure of the feathers and the pigments. The feather scatters reflected light and affects the color because the distance between the melanin and air cavities is smaller than the wavelength of light. Blue and green color in animals is created this way. There are four types of pigments:

- Melanin. (Brown, black, gray, yellows).
- Porphyrins. A rare pigment creates green.
- Psittacins. (Red, orange, yellow).
- Carotenoids. (Red, orange, yellow).
  Flamingos are born white, but the carotenoids in their diet of algae and small fish gives them the pink color.

Fish. Color is achieved by the pigment cells and how many layers of skin in which they occur. These four chromatophores are melanin (black), xanthin (yellow), lipochrome (orange), and erythrin (red).

Imagine | Will our skin, hair and eye color change with our emotions or at our will?

Autumn Leaves.

| Chlorophyll
--- | ---
| Anthocyanin Glucose
| Anthocyanins + Carotenoids
| Carotenoids
| Tannin

The colors of autumn leaves are due to changing concentrations of many chemicals. Decreasing light levels in autumn causes chlorophyll production to slow and other pigments emerge in this order as the green color fades.

Chlorophyll. It gives a green color and masks all other pigment colors.
Anthocyanin. Sugar (glucose) concentration increases and anthocyanin production increases, giving the leaves a pink, red, blue or purple color.
Carotenoids. Carotenoids and xanthophyll give the leaves a yellow color and a mixture of carotenoids and anthocyanin gives an orange color.
Tannins. They give a brown color. When the major pigments are absent other chemicals affect leaf color.

Air And Water

Creation Day 2 (Monday) | On the second day God separated the land and the sky from the water, creating the sky and the sea. At this point the planet must have looked like a gaseous planet. The theory of evolution cannot explain the source of water. Their theory is that the earth was bombarded for 400 million years with comets containing 5% water.
Air and Water | On this day the elements of period 1 and 2 are available to produce water (H2O) and all the gases that produce air. ( H2, He, O2, O3, CO, CO2, N2, CH4 ). Only fresh water could have been produced because there was no sodium. With the presence of light, air and water, a rainbow could have been formed.

Layer | Details | Deep space
--- | --- | ---
Exosphere | New Jerusalem 1500 miles (2400) |
1000 miles (1600)
800 miles (1286)
Ionosphere | 400 miles (643 Km)
380 miles (610 Km) Hubble Telescope
200 miles (320 Km) Space station
Aurora Borealis Space shuttle 150 miles (241 Km)
Thermosphere | 60 miles (97 Km)
Mesosphere | 50 miles (80 Km)
Stratosphere | 31 miles (50 Km)
Ozone (15-20 km)
Tropopause
Troposphere | 11 miles (18 km)
Weather, clouds
People
Earth
Lithosphere (Crust) | Surface to 200 m | Euphotic sea
200 m to 1500 m | Bathyal zone
1500 m to floor | Abyssal zone
Asthenosphere | 200-300 km | Mantle
Mesosphere | 650-2890 km | Mantle
Core | 2890-6370 km | Iron
Astronaut. Travels to outer space. Pilot. Operates an airplane.
Altimeter. Measures altitude (height).

Atmosphere
The air is made up of several layers.

1. Magnetosphere. A highly magnetized and radioactive region above the ionosphere up to 70,000 km (10 earth radii). Within this space are the Van Allen radiation belts.
2. Exosphere. Above 800 miles (1286 km). Geostationary satellites orbit Earth at 22,264 miles (35,790 km).
3. Ionosphere. Any level above 20 miles (32 km) in which there are charged particles. It is in the mesosphere and thermosphere.
   - Aurora. The Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights) occurs above 50 miles (80 km) because of the charged particles in the Ionosphere.
   - Space Shuttle. The space shuttle files about 150 miles (241 km) above the earth. It takes about 46 hours for the shuttle to reach the space station travelling at 17580 mph (28287 kph) in orbit and 4973 mph (8002 kph) during launch.
   - Space Station. The space station is about 200 miles (322 km) up.
   - New Jerusalem. Contrast this to the city of the New Jerusalem which is 1500 miles high (2400 km). Some sources say 375 miles high (603 km). Whichever is correct it is a very big city that can reach far beyond the space station.
   The official orbit height for a vehicle is 328,000 feet (100 Km).
4. Thermosphere. 50 - 60 miles (80-97 km)
5. Mesosphere. 35 to 50 miles (56-80 km) is the coldest layer.
6. Stratosphere. From 10 to 35 miles (16-56 km). The ozone layer is in this zone between 9.5 to 12.5 miles (15 to 20 km). It protects us from ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
7. Troposphere. The lowest level extends 11 miles (18 km) in the air. All weather activities occur here.

Weather
Our weather is affected by the large amount of water exposed to the heat from the sun. Warm air rises and cold air falls, causing a cycle of flowing air. The combination of air mass, pressure, the flow of air, moisture from the oceans and lakes and ocean temperature creates our global weather patterns.
Air Mass.

Region | Water | Air Flow | Air Mass
--- | --- | --- | ---
Arctic | Ice | Easterlies | Polar
Polar | Polar Jet | Ferrel
35º-65º | Gulf Stream | Westerlies
25º-35º | Subtropical jet | Hadley
25º | Trade Winds NE
Equator | Doldrums
5º-30º | Intertropical Convergence Zone (Monsoon Trough) | Hadley
25º | Humboldt | Trade Winds SE
25º-35º | Ocean Conveyor Belt | Subtropical jet
35º-65º | Westerlies | Ferrel
Polar | Polar Jet
Antarctic | Ice | Easterlies | Polar
Barometer. Measures air pressure
Meteorologist. Predicts the weather

A block of air with the same temperature and moisture. The boundary of an air mass is called the "front". At the boundary of two fronts, the difference in the air causes the most severe weather as the molecules try to reach equilibrium.

- Polar Cells (Arctic Air Mass). Located between 60º and the pole. Cold air from the poles descends and releases rain as it heats up and rises near the arctic circle. It creates the polar easterlies.
- Ferrel Cells. It is located between 30º and 60º north and south latitude
- Hadley Cells. Hot air from the equator rises in the doldrums and descends at latitude 25-30º north and south. The northward flow deflects to the right, due to coriolis, and becomes a westerly flow in the upper layers.
  Coriolis Effect. The rotation of the earth causes wind and water motion to deflect to the right (clockwise) of the direction of motion in the north and to the left (counter clockwise) in the southern hemisphere.
- Doldrums. A region of stagnant air near the equator between 30º north and south.
- Wastrels. The region between the Hadley cells.

| Region
Arctic
Polar
35º-65º
25º-35º
25º
Equator
5º-30º
25º
25º-35º
35º-65º
Polar
Antarctic

Air Flow. Winds are named by the direction from which they flow.

1. Jet Stream. A current of fast moving air flowing west to east found at 10-15 km (6-9 miles) in the upper levels of the atmosphere at a speed of 56-400 miles per hour. It separates a mass of cold air in the north from a warm air mass in the south.
   - Pineapple Express. A weather system originating in the Hawaiian tropics that brings rain to the west coast of the United States. The jet stream bends to the south over the Pacific Ocean picking up warm moist air which condenses and brings waves of rain to the Pacific Northwest.
   - Siberian Express. The polar jet steam turns south and brings cold arctic air to the southern part of the United States.
2. Trade Winds. These are the lower level winds from the Equatorial Hadley cells which blow from the east to the west. The rising warm air in the tropics creates a void that is filled by air coming from higher latitudes, causing the trade winds. As the trade winds cross over Africa, they form the disturbances that form hurricanes.
3. Westerlies. Winds that blow from the west to the east in the temperate region. They are caused by the trade winds which are reflected and turn toward the poles and loop back east.
4. Easterlies. Arctic polar air moves from the poles and creates turbulence in the air when it meets a warm front moving in the opposite direction. This exchange of heat releases rain, hail and other weather phenomenon.

Ocean Temperature
Ocean temperature affects the weather by bringing moisture and changing the temperature of the air.

1. Ocean Conveyor Belt (Thermohaline Circulation). This acts as the ocean's circulatory system and distributes tropical heat around the planet. This is a 1600 year cycle that imports warm surface water from the Pacific and sinks cold deep salt water from the Atlantic near Greenland. The North Atlantic and Southern Ocean give their cold deep waters and nutrients to the Pacific and the warm surface waters, driven by surface winds, sink to replace it.
2. Nordic Heat Pump (Atlantic Heat Conveyor). Heat moves from the Caribbean and the tropical South Atlantic to the North Atlantic along the Ocean Conveyor belt. Heat is pumped into the Nordic sea and gives Europe warm temperatures by a transfer of heat from the sea to the air.
3. Gulf Stream. Warm ocean current in the north Atlantic that flows north east from Cape Hatteras near Florida, to Newfoundland and then towards Britain. It brings warm air to northern Europe, a region of the earth that should normally be cool. Global warming is affecting the gulf stream. Warm air melts the polar ice caps and sends chunks of ice into the sea. This cools the water in the north and counteracts the warming effect of the gulf stream.
4. El Niño and La Niña. Periodically, major changes in the global weather pattern occur because of the changes in the temperature of the Pacific ocean surface water near the coast of Peru.
   Normally, cold air from the arctic and Antarctic circle converges at the equator off the coast of Peru and heads west towards Indonesia. If it is stalled by a high pressure system over Indonesia, the cold air stops flowing and water near Peru heats up. The opposite happens with La Niña. Changes in the Peru current (Humboldt current) creates the cyclical changes in weather pattern.
   - El Niño (the son). Warm water off the coast of Peru causes excess rain.
   - La Niña (the daughter). Cold off the coast of Peru causes drought conditions.

Clouds

Clouds
Location | Name | Appearance | Composition
--- | --- | --- | ---
High | Cirrus | White filaments | Ice crystals. (6,500-23,000 feet or 2,000-7,000 meters)
Cirrocumulus | Small Ripples
Cirrostratus | Transparent sheets
Medium | Altocumulus | White, layered ripples | Ice crystals and water droplets. (18,000-45,000 feet or 5,500-14,000 meters)
Altostratus | Thin, grey layer
Nimbostratus | Thick, low, dark with rain or snow
Low | Stratocumulus | White, layered rolls | Water droplets. (6,500 feet or 2,000 meters)
Stratus | Grey, layered sheets
Cumulus | Vertical towers
Cumulonimbus | Cauliflower shaped towers and anvil tops. Thunder storm, ice crystals, snow, rain
Pyrocumulus | Produced by fires, volcano and industries when they cause the air to heat up with a lot of moisture and no wind
| This is a representation of the second day of creation. God is separating the waters that are part of Himself. The lower layers will remain to form the seas and the upper layers will remain with Him. They form the heavens that cover our universe. They are not the clouds we see. Our sky is only a little representation of what it looks like if God hovered over us. Just as a baby is surrounded by amniotic fluid in the womb, our universe was born out of the waters of God.

March 25, 2000. The USA "IMAGE" satellite is the first weather satellite for space storms. It studies the effects of solar wind on the earth's magnetic sphere.
When water condenses (forms liquid) it is called different things depending on where it forms.

- Air. Clouds
- Near the Ground. Fog or mist
- Ground. Dew.
  After creation, the earth was watered by ground level clouds. Air level clouds existed after the flood.

Clouds bring much of the weather we experience. There are different formations of clouds. A cloud is a collection of water droplets or ice crystals. They are formed when water evaporates from the surface of the earth. As this moist air rises it expands and cools because of the lower pressure of the upper atmosphere. Cooler air holds less water.
Clouds are named based on their appearance, contents and the altitude (height) at which they form. They have at least one of the following characteristics in their appearance.

- Cirrus. A tuft or filament.
- Cumulus. A heap or pile
- Stratus. Forms a layer
- Nimbus. Rain bearing clouds

Clouds are named by combining the descriptions of several of these features.

Pyrocumulonimbogeostratus Megacell. This is the name we created for the cloud that surrounds God. It is a huge fire producing system of clouds that covers the earth and rains fire.
God always describes Himself as being surrounded with fire, clouds, rainbow, a blue floor and elements from the weather. He is His own gigantic weather system. Lightning and thunder come from His throne. This weather system can rain fire and stone.
What would you name it?

Smog. A cloud formation that has occurred since the twentieth century because of the burning of fossil fuels in cars and electric plants. It is a mixture of exhaust gases, dust and moisture in the air that generally forms over big cities situated in valleys. In these locations, the air is not easily refreshed by winds. The air remains trapped in the valleys because it cannot get over the high mountains. So, since these clouds of pollution can travel thousands of miles, this same problem causes pollution to be trapped in the mountains, forests and national parks.
The air quality changes because of the amount of modern pollution in the atmosphere from automobiles and factories. This caused scientists to develop a system to measure the air quality. It was necessary because ozone damages the lungs and quickly affects the breathing of people with respiratory illnesses. On hot summer days when there is no rain, the air quality becomes the most dangerous. Five causes of pollution are measured.

Air Quality Index
Color Code | AQI | Category
--- | --- | ---
Green | 1 - 50 | Good
Yellow | 51 - 100 | Moderate
Orange | 101 - 150 | Unhealthy for sensitive people
Red | 151 - 200 | Unhealthy for all
Purple | 201 - 300 | Very Unhealthy
Maroon | 301 - 500 | Hazardous
Sulfur Dioxide. Over 69.4% is produced by industrial combustion. 3.7% is caused by transportation. Oxides of Nitrogen. Transportation causes 43% of this pollution. Industry causes 32%
Environmentalist. Protects the environment through public awareness and legal action
Human Rights Monitor. Protects exploited people through public awareness and legal action
Eudiometer. Measures air purity

1. Ground level Ozone (O3). Ozone in the upper atmosphere protects the planet from ultraviolet radiation, but it is hazardous near the surface. Remember "Ozone is good up high, bad near by". Ozone is created as the pollution interacts with the sun. Therefore, levels are higher in the summer.
2. Particulate Matter (soot and dust). These are tiny solid particles suspended in the air.
3. Carbon Monoxide (CO).
4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Creates acid rain with sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
5. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO and NO2). Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. They attack the respiratory system and damage the ozone. They create acid rain with nitric and nitrous acid (HNO3 and HNO2).
   Acid Rain. A cloud of smog produces acid rain which kills lakes and forests. Any precipitation with pH less than 5.6 is acid rain. This rain kills young fishes and insects, pine needles and strips the wax coat from a leaf. Animals who eat insects die when their food supply is gone. Fish die when their young babies do not grow up. Acid reacts with minerals in the soil and strips away the nutrients that plants need. It also releases heavy metals that are normally trapped by the soil.

Climate Change: Pollution has contributed to several global effects on our planet.

Greenhouse Gas | % Gas
--- | ---
Water | 65%
Carbon Dioxide | 33%
Methane | 2%
Nitrous Oxide
Ozone

- Hole in the Ozone Layer. In 1985, scientists discovered a hole in the ozone layer. In 2003, the South Pole ozone hole was over 11 million square miles (28.5 square Km). This is an area three times larger than the United States.
- Greenhouse Effect. The warming of the lower atmosphere because of carbon dioxide and water vapor. This causes the rays of the sun to heat the earth and prevents heat from escaping back into space. The greenhouse effect has caused global warming and unpredictable climate changes.
- Greenhouse Gases. Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared heat from the sun. Such as, water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3) and artificial chemicals like fluorocarbons. Carbon dioxide lasts for over 100 years in the atmosphere, while methane lasts for ten years. But methane can trap heat 21 times better than carbon dioxide. This causes it to create 18% of the greenhouse effect even though it is at a low concentration.
- Glaciers Melting and Polar Warming. In the past century, many glaciers have disappeared. In 2002 a shelf of ice broke off Antarctica. It is 100 miles long and 40 miles wide (160 Km by 64 Km). The glaciers of Mt. Kilimanjaro will melt by 2020. They have melted 80% since 1912. The Glacier National Park in Montana has only 30 smaller glaciers remaining from the 150 that existed in 1910. All will melt before the end of the century.
- Oceans Warming and Rising. The warming oceans change weather patterns. In a forty year period the amount of energy used to warm up the ocean was equivalent to the amount of energy that it would take to run California for 200,000 years. This energy did not come from the sun. The only explanation is that heat is being trapped by greenhouse gases. Global warming increases storms, droughts and other extreme weather events, floods low lying coasts, and drown entire island nations as the seas rise because glaciers are melting.
- Acidic Oceans. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
- Coral Bleaching. As temperatures get above 85ºF (29.5ºC) bleaching occurs in the coral reefs and they lose algae and other organisms and die.
  By 2012, the Great Barrier reef, the world's largest coral reef, lost half of its size in 27 years and could be down to 25% by 2022. The damage was due to 34 intense tropical cyclones caused by warming oceans since 1985 (48%), coral feeding star fish (42%) and coral bleeching in 1998 and 2002 (10%).

  The Body Earth
  Resource | Function
  --- | ---
  Ocean Conveyor Belt. Jet stream | Circulatory Respiratory
  Tropical Forests Oceans (70%) | Respiratory
  Trees, Roots | Digestive
  Dirt (Topsoil) | Digestive
  Ozone Layer | Skin
  Crust, plates | Skeleton
  Oil | Hydraulics?

- Eroding Natural Defences. The Earth's natural defences against disaster are being eroded or destroyed.
  - Forests. Absorb the rain. Deforestation causes mudslides and soil erosion.
  - Mangroves. Protect coasts.
  - Wetlands. Soak up flood water.
- Heat Wave. By the year 2003, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2001 and 1997 were the five hottest years on the planet since record keeping began in the 1880's. In 2010 all of the last 10 years were in the top 12 hottest years since record keeping began in 1850, with 2010, 2005, 1998 and 2003 being the hottest. In 2012, nine of the ten warmest years were after 2000, with 2012 being the hottest and 2011 ranked at ninth.
- Weather Extremes. Storms are more frequent and more powerful and occur in areas never seen. Weather temperatures are also wavering between extremes. Blizzards are stronger and longer and occur in normally warm places. Cold climates experience warmer temperatures during winter and warm locations experience severe winters as the Jet stream is pushed and pulled across the globe.
- Oxygen Imbalance. 70% of our oxygen comes from the ocean. Oxygen is absorbed when the water is cold. So, as the ocean temperature increases it depletes the oxygen and leads to the death of marine life. In addition, the main source of oxygen is gone. Where does this oxygen go? It is probably trapped in the excess carbon dioxide which causes global warming.

As this information becomes more political than scientific, proponents offer up information that is designed to ignore the warming trend and stop efforts to start making personal changes before it is too late.

- Glaciers Melting. The best evidence that the planet is experiencing an overall warming trend that may be irreversible is the continued melting and disappearance of old glaciers.
- Previous Temperature Spikes. Those against global warming point to previous cooling trends as natural cycles from which the earth will rebound. They fail to mention that none of these cycles removed ice fields that are thousands of years old, or millions of years old (evolution). Two catastrophic volcanic eruptions around 535 AD and 1815 AD also caused a cooling trend. One in 1783 caused a cooling trend in Europe.
- Data Mismanagement. Some climate change scientists have been caught trying to suppress climate cooling data. They do the same thing in the creation and evolution debate by suppressing inconvenient data. In the case of climate temperatures the answer may lie in where temperature collectors were placed. Those in the cities registered warmer temperatures and those in the rural areas were cooler. These might indicate that scientists need to find a better way to measure real overall temperature trends, not the immediate effects of industrial activity.

Storms

Precipitation
Palmer Drought Index
Color Code | Rain fall | Category
--- | --- | ---
Maroon | -4.0 or less | Extreme drought
Red | -3.0 -3.9 | Severe drought
Orange | -2.0 -2.9 | Moderate drought
White | -1.9 - 1.9 | Near normal
Light Green | 2.0 - 2.9 | Moist
Green | 3.0 - 3.9 | Very Moist
Dark Green | 4.0 + | Extremely Moist
Precipitation falls from clouds to the ground in several forms. Rain. Water or other liquid Snow. Small ice crystals Sleet. Icy Rain Hail. Chunks of ice When precipitation falls in a large volume or at a fast rate it creates a storm. A persistent lack of precipitation over time creates drought. The Palmer index measures water balance by considering supply, demand and loss. That is precipitation, transpiration and evaporation and run off.
Ten inches (25 cm) of snow can contain 0.10 to four inches of water (.25-10 cm). With strong winds, ten inches of snow contains about one inch of water.
Hyetometer, Udometer. Measures rainfall

Tropical Cyclones. A low pressure system originating in the tropics with thunderstorms and a circulation of winds near the Earth's surface around the low pressure. They are classified by the wind speed. The Atlantic storm season occurs between June 1 and November 30.
They form in the region that is 5º to 30º latitude for these reasons.

1. Moisture. They are close enough to the warm waters of the equator to gain moisture.
2. Rotation. Only at that location does the rotation of the earth cause the air mass to get a spin. The radius of the earth in that region changes sharply. Therefore, the wider end spins at a slower rate. The difference in spin at both ends of the cloud causes the air mass to rotate.

There are three categories of cyclones based on the wind speed.

1. Tropical Depressions. Have winds of less than 17 metres a second or 38 miles per hour (mph).
2. Tropical Storms. Have winds between 17 and 33 metres a second or 39-73 mph.
3. Hurricane. A tropical storm in the Atlantic with wind speed over 33 metres per second, 119 kph or 74 miles per hour. They form in waters in the ocean that are about 80º between latitude 5º and 30º and move west then north. Hurricanes that are south of the equator spin in a clockwise direction, while those in the north spin in the opposite direction.
   Storm Names. They are named by the region in which they originate. Hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean are assigned a different set of names than Atlantic storms. Tropical storms are given names in alphabetical order and alternate between masculine and feminine names. This list rotates every six years for each regional group.
   High speed tropical storms which originate in other oceans also have different titles.
   - Hurricane. North Atlantic Ocean, North Pacific Ocean east of the dateline, and the South Pacific Ocean east of 160ºE. (July - October).
     » Pacific Hurricanes. Around September, they form in the warm water off Central America and move west into the Pacific and rarely make landfall. These have a different set of names.
   - Typhoon. Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline. (July - October)
   - Cyclone. Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160ºE or Southeast Indian Ocean east of 90ºE, North Indian Ocean and in the Southwest Indian Ocean. (December - May).
   - Willy Willies. Australia. (November - March).

Funnel Cloud. A funnel cloud is a vortex of condensed water vapor and air spinning at high velocity.

Tornado or Twister. A huge, swirling vortex of rapidly rotating air that contacts the ground. It is caused by a rotating storm system rather than by local wind rotation. It is called a funnel if it does not contact the ground. When it forms on the water it is called a water spout. They are formed during a thunderstorm.
The storm is rated on the Fujita Scale. While hurricanes may be hundreds of miles wide, a tornado may only be 150 feet wide and move across the surface at about 0-60 mph for about five minutes causing damage to a path up to 100 miles (160 km).

Saffir-Simpson Scale of Hurricane Strength |
Fujita Scale (Tornado Wind Speed)
Old Scale | New
--- | ---
# | Mph | Kph | Mph
F0 | 40-72 | 64-116 | 65-85
F1 | 73-112 | 117-180 | 86-110
F2 | 113-157 | 181-253 | 111-135
F3 | 158-206 | 254-331 | 136-165
F4 | 207-260 | 332-418 | 166-199
F5 | 261-318 | 419-511 | > 200
F6 | > 318 | > 511 | -
The 2007 new scale is called the enhanced Fujita scale. F12 is the speed of sound. |
A cyclone is a storm with winds that swirl around a central eye. Wind direction is counter clockwise (west to east) in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise (east to west) in the Southern Hemisphere.
Estimates Property Damage and Flooding by Category
# | Mph | Kph | Surge | Damage
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
5 | > 155 | > 249 | 18 ft | Most roofs, curtain walls, all trees
4 | 131-155 | 210-249 | 13-18 | Curtain walls, small home roofs
3 | 111-130 | 178-209 | 9-12 | Mobile homes destroyed
2 | 96-110 | 154-177 | 6-8 | Doors, windows, roof material, mobile homes
1 | 74-95 | 119-153 | 4-5 | Trees, unanchored mobile home
- | 35-73 | 56-118 | 0-3 | Tropical Storm. Flooding, trees
- | < 35 | < 56 | < 3 | Tropical Depression. Flooding
Jupiter. The great red spot on Jupiter is caused by a permanent hurricane. It is 340 years old and 2 to 3 times wider than earth.
Saturn. A storm 5000 miles (8000 km) wide, swirling at 350 mph (560 kph) with clouds between 20-45 miles (30-75 km) high was discovered at the south pole in 2006. It has a central eye and eye walls like a hurricane.
Mars. Dust storms can cover over two thirds of the planet and last for months.
On March 25, 2004 a tropical cyclone, Catarina, formed in the south Atlantic for the first time since satellite observations began. It struck Brazil on March 28. There has been only one other cyclone in the south Atlantic, and it stayed out at sea.
Carpenter. Builds homes, furniture, wood structures Mason. Builds structures using stone, bricks, cement Plumber. Installs pipes and ducts to carry air and water Electrician. Installs electrical systems and wiring | Architect. Designs houses and buildings Interior Designer. Decorates with color, furniture Sanitation Engineer. Garbage management Civil Engineer. Designs roads and bridges

Tornado Alley. The region in the central United States where tornadoes are common. The land in the Great Plains in northern and central Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska is very flat, and allows cold dry polar air from Canada to meet warm moist tropical air from the Gulf of Mexico. Tornadoes are formed by the thunderstorms along the front between these two air masses.

Hazardous Weather Alerts
Alert | Meaning
--- | ---
Warning | Conditions are occuring or will occur in 24 hours
Watch | Conditions are favorable for development in 24-36 hours
Advisory | Conditions are occurring, imminent or likely
Severe Weather Statement | Important information on the progress of the weather
Outlook | Hazardous weather may occur in several days

Some of the tornadoes in the southern states such as Florida, South Carolina, and Georgia are caused by hurricanes.

- Land Spout. A funnel cloud that touches the ground.
- Water Spout. A funnel cloud over water.
  It's Raining Cats and Dogs. While there is no evidence that it ever rained cats and dogs, these waterspouts and tornadoes can carry small objects for miles. These clouds have been known to carry fish, frogs, flounders, geese, ducks, grasshoppers, mussels, crayfish, snails and jellyfish. Would they be called zoonimbus clouds?
- Dust Devil. A tiny, harmless twister that is only a few inches or a few feet tall. It is formed by hot air on sandy surfaces or pavements and it is not connected to a storm cloud. It generally disturbs only dust and leaves and may reach speeds of up to 70 mph (96 km) and may last for less than a minute to several hours.
- Haboob. A dust or sand storm with strong winds that carry small particles of dirt or sand into the air.
- Firewhirl. A rotating column of fire and smoke created by intense heat from a forest fire or volcanic eruption.
- Derecho. A line of widespread, fast moving thunderstorms, with damaging straight line winds over hundreds of miles. The extensive damage may initially look like a tornado. But it lacks the circular pattern of damage caused by a tornado.
- Microburst. Strong winds without the rotation. They are narrow, focused down drafts from a thunderstorm that are shaped like an upside down funnel.
- Blizzard. A winter storm with winds of 35 mph (48 km) or more with considerable falling or blowing snow reducing visibility to less than one quarter mile for three or more hours.
- Monsoon. The heavy rainfall and seasonal reversals of the wind direction along the shores of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia, especially in the Arabian Sea. It blows from the southwest during one half of the year and from the northeast during the other.

The Seasons

The Six Seasons |
Month | Northern Hemisphere | Equator | Southern Hemisphere
--- | --- | --- | ---
Pole | Temperate | Tropics | Tropics | Temperate | Pole
- | Solstice | - | Equinox | - | Solstice | -
(low) Temperature | Rain Belt | Temperature (low)
3 | March | Night | Winter | Dry | Dry | Wet | Wet | Dry | Summer | Day
Equinox | Day | Spring | Autumn | Night
4 | April | Wet | Dry
5 | May | Wet
6 | June
Solstice | Summer | Dry | Winter
7 | July
8 | August | Dry
9 | September | Dry | Wet
Equinox | Night | Autumn | Spring | Day
10 | October | Wet
11 | November | Wet
12 | December | Dry
Solstice | Winter | Dry | Summer
1 | January
2 | February
Countries | Alaska | Russia, Europe | India, Caribbean | S. Asia | Argentina, Australia
North America, China | Israel, Africa | Africa, South America, Chile
Temperate Climate | 1 | Autumn
--- | --- | ---
2 | Winter
3 | Spring
4 | Summer
Tropical Climate | 5 | Wet (rainy, green, monsoon)
6 | Dry Cool
Dry Hot
Follow the Sun. When the sun is directly overhead, there are long days, hot summers, high humidity or rainy season.
Solstice. Sun is farthest north (summer solstice) or south (winter solstice) and hot weather occurs. Equinox. Sun is directly over the equator. Day and night are equal length. This occurs in spring and autumn.

The seasons are the result of the 23.45º tilt of the Earth's axis and angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth and the location of the sun, not our distance from the sun. This affects the number of daylight hours and the angle of the rays of the sun as they strike the earth and the amount of rainfall.

- Tilt Of The Earth. The tilt causes rays of the sun to strike the Earth at a more direct angle during summer. This concentrates the rays in a smaller area and creates more heat. These hot conditions are best for creating thunderstorms and the rainy season. In the winter the rays strike at an angle and are spread out over a larger area causing cooler temperatures.
- Length Of The Day. In winter the days are shorter, so there is less energy to heat up the earth. In summer the days are longer and more energy heats up the earth.
- Rain Belt. Hot days creates thunderstorms in the tropical rain belt that extends between the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. It creates one long rainy season at the tropics and two wet and two dry seasons on the equator as the rain belt passes over twice a year, as it moves north and then south. The region in between may have one long and one short rainy season.
- Mediterranean Climate. A special climate zone appears on the western coasts of large continents that are near large bodies of water. These conditions occur from December to February in the northern hemisphere and April to September in the south. They have rain with cool, mild, wet winters and dry summers. e.g. San Francisco, Los Angeles, Santiago, Adelaide, Perth, Capetown, Alexandria, Naples and Greece.

There are six seasons which are created by the action of the sun affecting temperature and rain. This mix of seasons is dependent on the heat cycles in three basic locations, the northern hemisphere, southern hemisphere and the equator.

Weather Instruments Meteorologists use many types of instruments to measure temperature, water vapor, pressure and wind speed and direction.

- Thermometer. Measures air temperature.
- Rain Guage. Measures the amount of rain that as fallen over a period of time.
- Hygromometer. Measures humidity (amount of water vapor in the air).
- Sling Psychrometer. Measures relative humidity with two thermometers.
- Barometer. Measures air pressure. A rising barometer means sunny and dry conditions, while a falling barometer means stormy and wet conditions.
- Wind Vane. Shows the direction from which the wind is blowing.

  Weather Satellites and Observatories
  Country | Satellite | Type | Region
  --- | --- | --- | ---
  1 | United States (NOAA, Nasa, DoD) | GOES-East | Geos | North, South America
  GOES-West | Geos | North America, Pacific Ocean
  QuickScat | Polar | Ocean
  NOAA-15, 16, 17, 18, TIROS-N, ATN, DMSP | Polar | America
  NPOESS | Polar | America
  2 | Europe | Meteosat; MSG | Geos | Europe, Asia, Africa, Indian and Atlantic Ocean
  MetOp-A | Polar
  3 | India | Insat | Geos | India
  4 | Russia | Geostat (GOMS) | Geos | Russia
  Meteor 3-5, 2-21 | Polar | Russia
  5 | China | FENG-YUN (FY-2B) | Geos | China
  FENG-YUN(FY-1,FY-3) | Polar | China
  6 | Japan | GMS, MTSAT (Himawari) | Geos | East Asia, West Pacific, Australia
  7 | Korea | COMS | Geos | Korea
  NASA. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Eumetsat. European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
  TIROS. Television Infrared Observation Satellites. ATN. Advanced TIROS - N. DMSP. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. (DoD) NPOESS. National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System. Newer system replacing NOAA, DMS and TIROS by 2009-2012.

- Anemometer. Measures wind speed.
- Compass. An instrument that finds direction.
- Doppler Radio. Measures the activity of small particles in the air by analyzing reflected signals bouncing off the particles. Particles coming toward the system show a higher frequency than particles moving away from the system. So the system can show density and direction and speed of the particle flow. It also shows weather front boundaries.
- Dropsondes. Dropped from airplanes by a parachute, they fall through the air collecting and recording data such as humidity, pressure, wind strength and temperature.
  » Radiosonde. Launched by weather balloons, they give simultaneous measurement and radio transmission of weather data.
  » Rocketsonde. Radiosonde launched by a rocket.
- Weather Satellite. Satellites track large scale air movements. They measure mostly visible and infrared wavelength. Visible views see day and night. Infrared views show cloud patterns at night. Newer satellites measure many environmental signals.
  - Geostationary (GEOS). High earth orbiting satellites that observe continents from a fixed location.
  - Polar. Low earth orbiting satellites, orbiting north to south that do remote sensing to measure temperature, wind speed, ozone, humidity, moisture and wildfires.
- Weather Surveillance.
  - Weather Station. Record data at fixed earth locations.
  - Weather Buoys. Record weather data at fixed locations, usually in the water.
  - Ships and Planes. Mobile weather stations.
    » Hurricane Hunter Fleet. Aeroplanes that fly into the eye of a storm to gather data.
  - Weather Balloon. Measures weather conditions high up in the atmosphere reaching altitudes as great as 90,000 ft (27,400 m).

Geography

The Biggest in the World
Category | Place | Size (km2)
--- | --- | ---
Continent | Asia | 44,579,000
Island | Australia | 7,617.930
Country | Russia | 6,592,846
Desert | Sahara | 3,500,000
Mountain | Everest | 8850m (29035ft)
Ocean | Pacific | 155,557,000
Sea | South China | 2,974,600
Lake | Caspian Sea | 371,000
River | Nile | 6,825 km
The map shows the continents, oceans, air flow that affects weather, tectonic plates and the ring of fire around the Pacific ocean
Tectonic Plates | There are seven large plates and twenty small ones | Faults
Continental and Oceanic Plates
a | Pacific
b | Eurasian
c | North American
d | African
e | Australian-Indian
f | Antarctic
h | South American
See another map. |
Plate | Location
--- | ---
g | Nazca | West coast of South America
i | Juan de Fuca | West coast of the USA
j | Scotia | Below South America
k | Cocos | West coast of Central America
l | Philippine | Philippines
m | Arabian | Arabia, Sinai Peninsula
n | Indian | India
o | Caribbean | Central America and the Caribbean Sea
| Faults on the ring of fire. Java Trench - Curve near Indonesia Aleutian Trench - Alaska to Russia Marianas Trench - Mariana Island Challenger Deep - Deepest point (11,000 meters) Faults at the junction of the plates. San Andreas Fault - Pacific plate. California Nojima - Japan East Pacific Rise - Nazca and Pacific Mid-Atlantic Ridge - African and North American Cascadia Subduction Zone - West USA
Fathometer. Measures under water depth with sound | Bathymeter. Maps contours of deep oceans

Earth Statistics
Population : Annual growth rate = 1.3% » 2007 = 6,602,224,175 (July) » 2002 = 6,233,821,945 Physical Characteristics » Weight = 5,940 x 1018 metric tons. » Circumference at the equator (40,066 km) » Diameter at the equator (12,753 km) » The earth orbits the Sun at (66,700 mph), (107,320 km per hour) » The earth orbits the Sun every 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds Surface Area (510,066,000 km2) » Land Area (148,647,000 km2) 29.1% » Water Area (361,419,000 km2) 70.9% Ocean Water Volume (1.37 x 109 km3) » Polar Ice Caps (3.3 x 107 km3) » Glaciers (2 x 105 km3) » Lakes (1 x 105 km3) » Rivers (1.2 x 103 km3) » Precipitation (2.2 x 105 km3)

The Earth is only 6000 years old. Its surface is 70.9% water and 29.1% land.
There are imaginary lines on the earth that help us to locate any place on the globe.

- Lines of Latitude. Imaginary lines around the earth running east to west are called lines of latitude. The most famous is the equator which runs around the center of the earth.
  Each 1º latitude at the equator is 69 miles (111 km).
  1. Equator - 0º Line at the center of the earth.
  2. Tropic of Cancer - 23.5º North of the equator.
  3. Tropic of Capricorn - 23.5º South of the equator.
  4. Arctic Circle - 66.5º North of the equator.
  5. Antarctic Circle - 66.5º South of the equator.
  6. North and South Pole. Top and bottom of the globe.
- Lines of Longitude. Those running North to south are called lines of longitude. They are used to determine time.
  1. Prime Meridian - 0º
  2. International Date Line - 180º. Time decreases as you travel east of this line.

Land | Water
--- | ---
The earth is divided into seven large bodies of land called continents. Smaller areas are called islands.
Continents of the World 2002 Statistics
# | Continent | Size 103 km2 | Total Countries | People (Million) | Highest Mountain
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
1 | North America | 24,256 | 23 | 483 | McKinley 6194m (20320ft)
2 | South America | 17,819 | 12 | 342 | Aconcagua 6959m (22831ft)
3 | Africa | 30,065 | 53 | 778 | Kilimanjaro 5963m (19563ft)
4 | Europe | 9,938 | 43 | 732 | Elbrus 5633m (18481ft)
5 | Asia | 44,579 | 47 | 3,674 | Everest 8850m (29035ft)
6 | Australia (Oceania) | 7,687 | 14 | 31 | Puncak Jaya 4884m (16023ft)
7 | Antarctica | 13,209 | 0 | 0 | Vinson Massif 4897m (16066ft)
Eurasia. The joined continents of Europe and Asia
Politician. Rules countries and makes laws
Major Islands of the World
# | Island | Size km2
--- | --- | ---
1 | Australia | 7,617,930
2 | Greenland | 2,175,600
3 | New Guinea | 792,500
4 | Borneo | 725,500
5 | Madagascar | 587,000
Major Deserts of the World
# | Desert | Location | Size km2
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | Sahara | North Africa | 3,500,000
2 | Arabian | Middle East | 1,000,000
3 | Gobi | China | 500,000
4 | Patagonian | Argentina | 260,000
5 | Great Victoria | Australia | 250,000
6 | Great Basin | United States | 190,000
Tallest Mountains of the World
# | Mountain | Location | Height (M)
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | Mauna Kea | Hawaii | 10203m (33476 ft). If measured from its base in the sea.
2 | Mount Everest | Nepal | 8850m (29035ft)
3 | Qogir | Pakistan | 8611m (28250ft)
4 | Kangchenjunga | Nepal | 8586m (28169ft)
5 | Lhotse | Nepal | 8501m (27920ft)
6 | Makalu 1 | Nepal | 8462m (27765ft)
| There are five oceans. 70.9% of the surface of the earth is covered with water. salt water (97%), fresh water (3%)
Oceans of the World
# | Ocean | Size (103km2) (km6 miles2) | Deepest Point (Feet)
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | Pacific | (155,557), 64 | Mariana Trench (35,827)
2 | Atlantic | (76,762), 33 | Puerto Rico Trench (30,246)
3 | Indian | (68,556), 28 | Java Trench (24,460)
4 | Southern | (20,327), 7 | South Sandwich Trench (23,736)
5 | Arctic | (14,056), 5 | Eurasia Basin (18,456)
Oceanographer. Studies oceans
Thalassometer. Instrument for measuring tides
Seas of the World
# | Sea | Size (km2) | Location
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | South China | 2,974,600 | Vietnam
2 | Caribbean | 2,515,900 | West Indies
3 | Mediterranean | 2,510,000 | South Europe
4 | Bering | 2,261,100 | Russia, Alaska
5 | Gulf of Mexico | 1,507,600 | Texas, Mexico
6 | Arabian | 1,498,320 | Saudi Arabia
7 | Sea of Okhotsk | 1,392,100 | East Russia
8 | Sea of Japan (East Sea) | 1,012,900 | Korea, Japan
9 | Hudson Bay | 730,100 | North Canada
10 | East China | 664,600 | North Taiwan
11 | Andaman | 564,900 | West Thailand
12 | Black | 507,900 | North Turkey
13 | Red | 453,000 | Egypt, Israel
Marine Biologist. Studies sea life
Rivers of the World
# | River | (km) | Location
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | Nile | 6,825 | Africa
2 | Amazon | 6,437 | South America
3 | Chang Jiang (Yangtze) | 6,380 | Asia
4 | Mississippi | 5,971 | North America
5 | Yenisey-Angara | 5,536 | Asia
6 | Huang (Yellow) | 5,464 | Asia
7 | Ob-Irtysh | 5,410 | Asia
8 | Amur | 4,416 | Asia
9 | Lena | 4,400 | Asia
10 | Congo | 4,370 | Africa
11 | Mackenzie-Peace | 4,241 | North America
12 | Mekong | 4,184 | Asia
13 | Niger | 4,171 | Africa
Scuba. Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

Pangea

Geography Project: Build Pangea or the New Jerusalem land forms
Cartographer. Map maker

The continents of Australia, India, South America, Africa, and Antarctica, existed together as a single land floating on aquifers (underground rivers and lakes) before the flood. There were no large bodies of water like our oceans and at that time there was no rain. A mist used to come from the earth and water the plants.
According to the Bible, during the flood the foundations of the earth burst open and water came out. It was during this time that the continents probably broke apart. The Bible says that 100 years later the land was divided. People separated according to language. The earth probably was drifting apart. Native Americans could have easily gone from the Middle East to the American continent.
The earth seems to have tilted approximately 4,000 years ago, at about the same time as the flood. It still has a wobble, suggesting that it was struck with great force. Science might explain this tilting as a result of an impact from an asteroid, and Creationists might explain the tilting by the action of God. At the time of the flood, God might have sent a great asteroid that struck the earth and broke the foundations and weakened the land along the lines of the plates and broke apart into the continents. Water from below rushed up to the surface and flooded the earth.
Evolutionists call this super continent Pangea. It is made from Gondwana in the south and Laurasia in the North. Pangea broke up into Gondwana (or Gondwanaland) which included South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia, Florida and part of southwest Europe. Laurasia is made up of North America, Europe and Asia.
Australia is now moving away from Antarctica and is moving north towards Asia at about six centimetres per year and will be a part of Asia in about 40 million years.
But the Second Coming will change all this. In about 1000 years, the Earth will be recreated and will probably be one land floating on the sea. Australia will not crash into China.

Earth Sciences | Geography is the study of the land. Oceanography is the study of the oceans. Geology is the study of rocks and minerals. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere.

Earthquake Classification | Scientific Observation
--- | ---
Strength | Magnitude | Frequency
Great | 9+ | 1 / decade
8+ | 1
Major | 7 - 7.9 | 17
Strong | 6 - 6.9 | 134
Moderate | 5 - 5.9 | 1319
Light | 4 - 4.9 | 13,000
Minor | 3 - 3.9 | 130,000
Very Minor | 2 - 2.9 | 1,300,000
The Largest Earthquake. The Earth is recovering from a wobble. By applying mathematical calculations that are based on causing a wobble in a spinning toy, it has been shown that this wobble occurred about 4000 years ago. Around the same time as the flood. The wobble was probably caused during the flood by an asteroid striking the earth and breaking the crust. This broke the tectonic plates, tilted the earth and caused huge tsunamis.
Seismologist. Studies earthquakes
Seismometer. Measures earthquake intensity

Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by the shifting plates under the surface of the earth or by the movement of magma (melted rock that comes from volcanoes). Most plates travel at speeds of between 1 and 15 cm per year. When they move by each other, they cause an earthquake.
Fault Lines. A break in the Earth along which movement occurs at the plates.
Plate Tectonics. The theory that relates most of the geologic features near the Earth's surface (Mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes) to the movement and interaction of thin plates of rock. There are four basic plate movements.

- Converging Boundary. A region where two plates collide.
  - Deformation. Two continental plates crash together but there is no volcanic activity. The region forms mountains. e.g. Himalayas.
  - Subduction Zone. A boundary where one plate slides under another. Usually the lighter continental plate slides over the heavier oceanic plate. This is a zone where volcanoes are prevalent and mountains form. e.g. Indonesia.
  - Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence. Two oceanic plates collide and one slides under another producing volcanoes under the sea that create island arcs. e.g. Marianas Trench.
- Transverse Boundary. Plates slide by each other and create cracks called a fault. e.g. San Andreas Fault
- Spreading Boundary. Plates move apart. The region has a lot of geothermal activity. e.g. Iceland.

Tsunami. A large tidal wave caused by an underwater earthquake exceeding magnitude 7.5, underwater landslide, volcanic eruption, impact from a meteorite, or the impact caused by large rocks falling from a mountain into the sea. Land slides from volcanic islands are the most likely of these.

Liquefaction. It occurs when soil behaves more like a liquid than a solid when it is saturated with water and loses it's strength and stiffness due to an earthquake or rapid increase in water pressure.

Volcano
The source through which molten rock flows out to the surface of the earth in the form of lava. Volcanoes are a conical hill or mountain built around a vent that connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of the earth. They are built by the accumulation of the particles that erupt from them. These are lava (melted flowing rocks), bombs (crusted over ash flows), and tephra (airborne ash and dust).
Lava exits the volcano through a central vein or through side fissures. Sometimes the lava solidifies in the side veins and form dikes. These support and strengthen the volcano. There are four types of volcanoes.

Volcano
Magma. Ejected Particles. Lava. Bombs. Tephra. Other Flows. Pryoclastic flow. Mud flows.
Olympus Mons, on Mars, is the tallest volcano in the solar system. It is a shield volcano that rises 24 km (78,000 feet). The base is more than 700 km in diameter.
There are about ten active volcanoes every day around the world.
Volcanologist. Studies volcanoes

- Cinder Cones. They have a bowl shaped crater at the top. They are built from small fragments of lava that solidify and fall as cinders around the vent to form a circular or oval cone. (e.g. Parícutin in Mexico)
- Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes). Large, steep, symmetrical cones built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs and may rise as much as 8,000 feet (2440 meters) above their bases. (e.g. Mount St. Helens, Mount Fuji, Mount Hood. The upper 1200 feet (366 meters) of Etna.
- Shield Volcanoes. They are built almost entirely of fluid lava that forms a flat, gently sloping cone. (e.g. Etna, Mauna Loa and Kilauea)
- Lava Domes. They are formed when the lava is too viscous to flow any great distance. So the lava piles up at its vent and the surface cools and cracks as lava from below is pushed out. (e.g. Mount Pelée in Martinique)

Volcano products.

- Magma. A river of melted rocks below the surface of the earth. It creates the flow of lava when it breaks the surface of the earth. The type of rock that creates the lava will affect the rate of the flow. Basalt lava and other extrusive rocks are very fluid and tend to form shield volcanos. Intrusive rocks do not flow easily and tend to form lava domes.
- Pyroclastic Flow. A fast moving, flowing avalanche of hot ashes, gases, rocks and debris which often accompany explosive eruptions. This often causes a mud flow as is rushes along the ground at speeds as high as 100 miles per hour (160 Km).
- Lahars. Corrosive rivers that form when rain mixes with the ashes. They remove vegetation and harden like concrete.
- Caldera. A crater with a depression caused by the collapse of a volcano.
- Ring of Fire. The line of volcanoes that circles most of the Pacific Ocean. A region where 75% of the Earth's active and dormant volcanoes are located. The ring appears to be on the edges of Pangea.
- Hot Spot. A hole in the tectonic plate through which lava flows. (e.g. Hawaii, Yellowstone) There are about thirty hot spots. Yellowstone is the only one on land.
- Supervolcano. A large volcano with the potential to spread ash thousands of miles and blot out the sun. Yellowstone is on a caldera that is the site of a magma chamber of a supervolcano. It is the largest volcano in the world. It is 80 km long and 40 km wide and 8 km deep. (50 x 25 x 5) miles.
- Subduction Zone. The region where one tectonic plate passes under another. The friction melts the rocks and creates lava and can cause megathrust earthquakes.

Geology: The Earth

Creation Day 3 (Tuesday) | Everything was still covered by water. On the third day God separated the water from the earth. He created the land and the trees. This includes grass, flowers, fruits and vegetables.
Sea, Earth (Clay) and Trees | Sodium was available so salt could have contaminated the water. Magnesium was available to make chlorophyll for trees. Sodium aluminium silicates make clay (Al, Mg, Fe) SiO2, SO4.

Scientific Observation | Scientists actually observed this! Surtsey Island. In November 1963, this island formed from a volcanic eruption and had mature beaches within months, not millions of years.
Turbidity Currents. These under water mud flows show that the layers in the geologic column can form in minutes or days, not millions of years as evolutionists say. They prove that the layers of the geologic column could have been formed by the flood.
Geologist. Studies the earth and rocks Archaeologist. Studies old buried objects Spelunker. Explores caves

Geology | The study of the earth and minerals.

Rocks
Scientists recognize three types of rocks.

1. Igneous. Crystallize from magma.
   - Extrusive (Volcanic Rock). Fine grained rock. It forms lava which flows. It is also called volcanic rock. (Basalt, Andesite, Dacite, Rhyolite)
   - Intrusive. Coarse grained rock. It is too thick to flow. (Gabbro, Diorite, Granodiorite, Granite)
2. Metamorphic. Forms when existing rock is changed by temperature, pressure or chemicals.
   - Foliated. Slate, schist, gneiss.
   - Non-foliated. Quartzite, marble
3. Sedimentary. Form by erosion of preexisting rock. This sediment turns into rock. This type of rock was made by the flood as water eroded existing rock and soil and mixed with the bones of the dead creatures.
   - Clastic. Shale, mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, breccia, conglomerate.
   - Chemical. Limestone, dolostone, evaporites.
   - Biologic. Coal, chert. Formed from decaying living materials.

   Granite - Genesis Rock
   Scientific Experiments Time | Dr. Robert Gentry studied granite rock and discovered that pleochroic haloes trapped in the rock were formed in less than three minutes. Probably 1.5 minutes. Therefore, he concluded that granite changed from a liquid to a solid form in less than three minutes.
   Granite rock did not cool over millions of years. It cooled in three minutes! Evolutionists are hoping that they can find another explanation for this. Because, if granite is reheated it forms another type of rock called rhyolite when it is cooled. So all the granite we see is in its original form on the day it was made.

4. Genesis Rock. Creationists recognize a fourth type of rock which does not fit any of the categories above. Granite is a rock which existed at creation. It cannot be formed by any of the three classifications. When granite is heated and cooled, it forms rhyolite. Therefore, any existing granite could not come from melted magma.

How did the sedimentary rock layers form? The creationists claim that all we see is a result of the flood. Evolutionists claim that all these layers were formed over trillions of years.
The discovery of turbidity currents changed this. They are only formed under water when large layers of mud slide across each other like an avalanche, building up layers in hours or days that scientists thought took millions of years.

Precious Stones
Gems are rare and so they are expensive. They are also prized because of their beautiful color. Diamond is made from carbon, the same element as coal. But, the diamond forms a crystal structure while coal is a random formation of the element. There are three sources of natural gems (animal, plant and minerals):
Animal Sources. Organic source of pearl, coral and ivory.

1. Ivory. It is the bone from elephants and rhinoceras tusks.
2. Pearl. It is made from fresh water or salt water oysters. A pearl starts out as a bit of dirt or garbage or something foreign that is annoying the oyster. The oyster responds by secreting a substance to encase the piece of dirt. It eventually grows into a round substance we call pearl. The response of the oyster reminds us of how our immune system cells responds to a foreign object in our body.

   Gem | Gem Family | Color | Sample
   --- | --- | --- | ---
   Sapphire | Corundum | Blue |
   Ruby | Corundum | Red |
   Diamond | Carbon | Clear |
   Emerald | Beryl | Green |
   Aquamarine | Beryl | Blue-green |
   Alexandrite | Chrysoberyl | Blue, red |
   Amethyst | Quartz | Lavender |
   Citrine | Yellow, orange |
   Ametrine | Purple, yellow |
   Rose quartz | Pink |
   Onyx | Chalcedony (Quartz) | Rainbow stripes |
   Sardonyx | Red stripe |
   Chrysoprase | Green |
   Chalcedony | Blue |
   Agate | Blue stripe. Many colors |
   Garnet | Garnet | Dark red |
   Tanzanite | Garnet | Dark Blue |
   Iolite | - | Blue - purple |
   Peridot | Olivine | Golden green |
   Spinel | Spinel | Red |
   Topaz | Topaz | Orange |
   Tourmaline | Tourmaline | Blue |
   Turquoise | Turquoise | Sky blue |
   Jade | Jade | Green |
   Opal | Opal | Rainbow |
   Pearl | - | Pink |
   Palm Wood | - | Brown, Spotted |

3. Coral. It is calcium carbonate. It is formed from the calcified skeletons of sea creatures that grow in formations resembling the branches of a tree.

Minerals. They are made from chemicals (atoms or molecules) which harden to form a crystal. There are several groups of mineral gemstones.

1. Beryl. Be3Al2(SiO3)6. Beryl is normally colorless and the impurities give the different varieties its color.
   • Emerald. green beryl Be3Al2Si6O18.
   • Aquamarine. blue
   • Beryl. red and golden versions
   • Goshenite. colorless
   • Morganite. pink
   • Heliodor. greenish yellow
2. Corundum. Al2O3
   • Ruby. red color caused by chromium
   • Sapphire. usually blue, but can be any color
3. Olivine. (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
   • Peridot. green, sometimes called chrysolite
4. Quartz. SiO2 comes in different shades of purple. Formed from one crystal or microcrystals:
   • Amethyst. purple
   • Citrine. yellow - orange
   • Milky Quartz. cloudy white
   • Smoky Quartz. brown to grey
   • Rose Quartz. pink to reddish pink
   • Rock crystal. clear
   • Tiger's Eye. Brown with gold yellow band
   • Chalcedony. Formed from several microcrystals.
   Chalcedony, Jasper, Flint, Cert and crystalline quartz are all types of quartz.
5. Garnet. A3B2(SiO4)3
   • Almandine. Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 - reddish brown to brown
   • Pyrope. Mg3Al2(SiO4)3 - dark red
   • Spessartine. Mn3Al2(SiO4)3 - orange, pink, brown
   • Uvarovite. Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 - green
   • Andradite. Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 - brown, black, green
   • Grossular. Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 - colorless, orange, green
6. Topaz. Al2SiO4(F, OH)3 Colors are clear, yellow, orange, red, blue and green
7. Zircon. ZrSiO4
8. Feldspar. A group of aluminosilicate minerals that contain calcium, sodium, or potassium. They make up more than 50 percent of the Earth's crust.
9. Other Gem Families. Spinel, Tourmaline, Chrysoberyl, Opal, Diamond, Jade, Peridot, Turquoise, Lapis Lazuli

Gem Family | Formula | Hard | Color | Gem Stones
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
2 | Diamond | C | 10 | White, gray, black, blue | -
3 | Quartz | SiO2 | 7 |
Amethyst | Heliotrope | Jasper | Citrine
--- | --- | --- | ---
Agate | Rose Quartz | Morion | Onyx
Carnelian | Chalcedony | Chrysoprase
Brown, violet, colorless, gray, yellow
3 | Opal | SiO2•1.5(H2O) | 5.5-6.5 |
Water Opal | Fire Opal
--- | ---
White Opal | Black Opal
White, yellow, red, brown, blue
3 | Corundum | Al2O3 | 9 | Blue, red, yellow, brown, gray |
Sapphire | Ruby
--- | ---
3 | Spinel | MgAl2O4 | 8 |
Spinel | Almandine Spinel | Balas Ruby | Rubicelle
--- | --- | --- | ---
Chlorspinel | Ghanospinel | Sapphire Spinel
Colorless, red, blue, green, brown
3 | Chrysoberyl | BeAl2O4 | 8.5 | Blue green, brown, brownish green, green, gray |
Alexandrite | Cat's Eye
--- | ---
3 | Beryl | Be3Al2(SiO3)6 | 7.5-8 |
Emerald | Aquamarine | Goshenite
--- | --- | ---
Heliodore | Morganite | Red Beryl
Green, blue, yellow, pink, colorless
3 | Topaz | Al2SiO4(F, OH)3 | 8 | Colorless, pale blue, yellow, yellowish brown, red
3 | Tourmaline | NaMg3A16(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 | 7-7.5 |
Tourmaline | Rubellite | Siberite | Achorite
--- | --- | --- | ---
Dravite | Indicolite | Verdilite | Brazilian Emerald
3 | Peridot | Mg2SiO4 (Forsterite) | 7 | Colorless, green, yellow, yellow green |
Olivine | Smaragdite
--- | ---
Forsterite | Smaragdite
4 | (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 (Olivine) | 6.5-7 | Yellowish green, olive green, greenish black, reddish brown
3 | Garnet | A3B2(SiO4)3 Mg3 Al2(Si3O12) (Pyrope), | 6.5-7 |
Pyrope-Almandine | Garnet | Chrome Pyrope | Almandine | Hessonite
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Tanzanite | - | Rhodolite | Color Change Garnet
Grossular | Pyrope | Malaia | Topazolite | Spessartine
Pyrope-Spessartine | Andradite | Demantoid | Tsavorite | Uvarovite
4 | Fe3 Al2(Si3O12) (Almandine), Mn3 Al2(Si3O12) (Spessartine), Ca3 Al2(Si3O12) (Grossular), Ca3 Fe2(Si3O12) (Andradite), Ca3 Cr2(Si3O12) (Uvarovite)
4 | Feldspar | (K, Na, Ca)(Si, Al)4O8 | 6-6.5 |
Feldspar | Sunstone | Moonstone
--- | --- | ---
Amazonite | Labradorite | Orthoclase
4 | Jade | Ca2(Mg,Fe++)5Si8O22(OH)2 | 6 | Green, green black, gray green, black |
Nephrite | Jadeite
--- | ---
4 | Turquoise | CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8•4(H2O) | 5-6 | Blue, blue green, green, green gray, light blue
4 | Lapis Lazuli | Na3CaAl3Si3O12S | 5.5 | Blue, azure blue, violet blue, greenish blue
5 | Zircon | ZrSiO4 | 7.5 | Brown, reddish brown, colorless, gray, green

Plant Sources. Organic source of amber, diamond and jet. Petrified wood is fossilized wood that has had its organic matter replaced by agate.

1. Amber. It is the fossilized resin of ancient pine trees which trapped seeds, leaves, feathers and insects and over time the resin hardened into a soft, warm, golden gem, known as amber.
2. Jet. It is black, shiny fossilized coal. When trees fell into the swamps the water logged trunks sank and compressed. In fresh water, soft jet was formed. Salt water formed hard jet.
3. Diamond. Made from carbon arranged in a cubic structure, hardness of 10. Carbon is the same element that makes coal and the graphite in pencils. It is the hardest known substance, four times harder than corundum. Carbon has other allotropes (different forms of the same chemical created by a different internal physical structure).
   » Graphite. A hexagonal structure of carbon. Iron black, dark gray, black, steel gray color, hardness is 1.5 to 2.
   » Chaoite. A hexagonal structure of carbon. Dark grey color, hardness is 1 to 2.
   » Fullerite. Black, brown color and 3.5 hardness.
   » Lonsdaleite. The heat and stress of a meteorite impact transforms the graphite into a hexagon shaped diamond, brownish black, light brownish yellow color and hardness is 7 to 8.
4. Petrified Wood. There are three types. Silicified wood has a wood grain pattern. Palm wood, from palm trees, looks different depending on the angle of the cut. It may be spotted, or have lines. Massive silicified wood has so much wood replaced with silica that a wood grain pattern cannot be recognized.
   - Petrified Dinosaur Bone. Quartz replaces the cellular structure in fossilized bone.

The Gems Of Heaven. The walls of the city of New Jerusalem and the breastplate of the high priest are made of twelve different gem stones. Some of these names are unknown, but some people have guessed which gem they might be. Agate is usually striped blues or earth tones. Chrysoprase is apple green chalcedony. The shade of green is due to nickel. Carbuncle is a red garnet. Carnelian is a red chalcedony.
The colors may be incorrect because some of these names are no longer used and because some stones have more than one color variety.
If the colors are correct, the walls of the city appear to have a green and blue foundation (or these are new colors that we do not know) then they progress in the order of the rainbow.

# | New Jerusalem | Son | Breastplate of the High Priest
--- | --- | --- | ---
12 | Amethyst | Purple | 1 | Reuben | Ruby | Red | The order of the stones is pictured from right to left since this is the order in which the Jews read and write.
Emerald | Topaz | Ruby
Diamond | Sapphire | Turquoise
Amethyst | Agate | Jacinth
Jasper | Onyx | Beryl
Onyx - Two onyx stones called the urim and thummim were kept in the folds of the breastplate. They were used to receive answers from God. Lapis Lazuli - The Ten Commandments were carved on a blue sapphire stone named Lapis Lazuli. It is one of the softest gemstones, making it perfect for writing.
11 | *Jacinth | Blue | 2 | Simeon | Topaz | Orange
10 | *Chrysoprase | Green | 3 | Levi | Emerald | Green
9 | Topaz | Orange | 4 | Judah | Turquoise | Sky Blue
8 | Beryl | Blue | 5 | Dan | Sapphire | Blue
7 | *Chrysolite | Yellow | 6 | Naphtali | Diamond | Clear
6 | *Sardius | Stripes | 7 | Gad | Jacinth | Blue
5 | Sardonyx | Red | 8 | Asher | Agate | Stripes
4 | Emerald | Green | 9 | Issachar | Amethyst | Purple
3 | *Chalcedony | Blue | 10 | Zebulun | Beryl | Blue
2 | Sapphire | Blue | 11 | Joseph | Onyx | Stripes
1 | Jasper | Green | 12 | Benjamin | Jasper | Stripes
Pearl gates | Pink | 2 Onyx (rainbow stripes) | Stripes
Streets | Gold | Furniture | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Glass

Imagine | What will your house in heaven look like? Will it float? Will it be under water? Will the roof be one large diamond or clear so that you can see the sky? Gold will be so common that the streets will be made from it. Precious gems are used to make walls.

Fossil Fuels and Hydrocarbons (Oil and Natural Gas)
Oil is called "black gold" because it is a mined resource that is highly prized. Most of our energy (81%) is produced by the three main sources of fossil fuels. These deposits of fuel are created from old trees and animals. Their existence points to their rapid burial and mass storage in fixed places by the catastrophic flood. But the bible also indicates that the region called Babylon (Iraq) had open tar pits before the flood.
Other sources of fossil fuels are heavy oils, tar sands, oil sands and oil shale, but they are more expensive to produce. The largest deposits are in Canada and in the Orinoco province of Venezuela.
Nuclear Energy. This is renewable, but it is not suitable for vehicles and the problems of radioactive waste and disposal are enormous. The contamination lasts for 24,000 years.
Green Fuel. These are friendly to the environment. They produce no known pollutants and are renewable. While other sources of energy are not practical for operating vehicles, or are seasonal, solar energy is clean, renewable, not labor intensive to produce and should be cheap. Most alternative fuels are designed to run mobile systems and take energy to produce. Only solar energy and electrical battery technology (stored energy) can run green power plants efficiently now.
Thoughts to Consider. How friendly is some of this "green" fuel?
If we rely heavily on geothermal and ocean thermal energy will we cool down or heat up the oceans and affect the thermohaline cycle, weather patterns and the marine ecosystem?
How does growing and burning biomass deplete the soil, pollute the air and drive up the cost of basic foods as farms compete to grow crops that give a higher profit?
Biofuels and Alternative Fuels used for automobiles are mostly made from high cellulose perennial grasses and plant material like switchgrass, miscanthus, HDSR megaflora tree, algae, rice and corn. They will produce pollutants because they are carbon based. Ethanol and vegetable oil are some of the most popular fuels used. They are useful for removing waste, but not as a permanent solution for mobile fuel.
» Megaflora Tree (HDSR). This is also called HDSR because of its high density and short rotation. It is a broad leaf tree that grows very big, very quickly. This tree grows to the full size of 60 feet (1829 cm) in 3 years and regrows from the stump after harvest. There is no need to plant again. It grows in poor soil and harsh climate and helps to reclaim damaged soil. So it is a very excellent source of biomass for fuel which does not compete with food crops.
The United States consumes 25% of the global oil supply. Yet it produces only 2% of the oil and is only 2% of the global population. The world will run out of this source of energy by the middle of the century.
Green Fuels. These are renewable, friendly to the environment and do not produce pollution.
Greenhouse Gases. Gases that trap heat. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and fluorocarbons
Photovoltaic Cell. A photovoltaic cell makes electricity from light, mostly red light dislodging electrons from silicon.
Solar Thermal Mirrors. Curved mirrors concentrate the rays of the sun and heat a tube of liquid which creates steam and moves turbines to produce electricity.
Energy Production.

Energy Source | Type of Energy | System | Conversion Path
--- | --- | --- | ---
Sun | Light | Radiant | Solar Panels (Photovoltaic cells) | Electricity
Light | Radiant | Photosynthesis | Sugar Alcohol Heat | Turbines Electricity Turbine. A rotary engine in which the kinetic energy of a continuous stream of moving fluid is converted into mechanical energy by turning the shaft attached to rotating blades. Water, steam, wind and gas can cause this rotation.
Heat | Thermal | Solar Thermal | Stored heat
Heat | Kinetic (Motion) | Wind | Mechanical energy
Ocean | Heat | Thermal | Ocean Thermal | Heat
Earth | Heat | Thermal | Geothermal | Heat
Earth | Gravity | Potential | Hydroelectric | Mechanical energy
Earth | Chemical | Electromagnetic | Fossil Fuels | Chemical Heat
Atom | Chemical | Electromagnetic | Fuel Cell | Mechanical energy
Atom | Atomic | Strong force | Nuclear | Heat

Two main processes converts energy to electricity by driving turbines.
Energy Source heat water drive turbines electricity
Energy Source mechanical rotation drive turbines electricity

Hydrocarbons (Fuel)

Sources of Energy | Systems
--- | ---
Classification | Product | Source | Problem | Homes | Cars | Plants
Fossil Fuels | C1-C4 | Natural Gas (22.9%) | Methane (CH4), Ethane, Propane, Butane | Pollution, global warming, limited supply, not renewable | -2-5 | 5 | Y
C3-C4 | Liquid Natural Gas (LNG). Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) | -2-5 | Y | Y
Petroleum (38.1%) | Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3H8) | ---5 | Y | Y
Bottled Gas. (Propane, Butane) | -2-5 | Y | Y
C5-C7 | Petroleum Ethers | Very volatile | ---- | - | -
C6-C12 | Gasoline (38.1%) | Petroleum (crude oil, heavy oil, tar sands, oil sands, bitumen, oil shale) | ---5 | Y | Y
C13-C18 | Diesel | ---5 | Y | Y
Fuel Oil | -2--- | Y | Y
C10-C14 | Kerosene | Petroleum | 12-5 | - | Y
Jet fuel | - | ----- | Plane | -
Paint thinner | - | ??--- | - | -
- | Coal (23.2%) | Coal mining | -2-5 | - | Y
Garbage dump | Natural Gas (Methane) (CH4) | -2-5 | 5 | Y
Industrial waste | Sawdust, nut shells, plant waste | -2-5 | 5 | Y
Wood | Trees | Volume | -2--- | - | -
C16-C20 | Lubrication oils | Pollution, not renewable | ---- | N | N
C25-C30 | Greases, Petroleum jelly, Parrafin wax, solids | ---- | N | N
C60 | Asphalt | -- | N | N
Biofuels | Dung (poop) | Dried cow dung, manure burned like wood | Supply | -2--- | - | -
Biogas | Cow Power. Manure makes methane | Supply | -2-5 | Y | -
Biofuels "Green Fuels" | Ethanol | Corn, sugar cane, beets (CH3CH2OH) | Food supply, volume, weather | ---5 | Y | Y
Biomass (2.9%) Cellulose Ethanol | Hay and other high cellulose perennial plant. Algae, switchgrass, miscanthus, megaflora (HDSR), rice | ---5 | Y | Y
Methanol (M85) | Wood alcohol (CH3OH) | ---5 | Y | Y
E85 | 85% corn ethanol and 15% gasolene | ---5 | Y | Y
Biodiesel | Vegetable and animal oils and fat | Volume | ---5 | Y | Y
Cooking oil | Recycled cooking oil | Volume | ---5 | Y | -
Whale oil | Whale. Used in the 1800's before kerosene | Volume | 12--- | - | -
Candle | Wax. | Volume | 1---- | - | -
Nature "Green Fuels" | Solar Photovoltaics (.006%) | Sun. It is the biggest nuclear power plant creating light and heat which can be converted to energy. Heat can be stored | Darkness | 123456 | 5 | Y
Solar Thermal mirrors | - | 123456 | 5 | Y
Wind (0.1%) | Using wind with speed greater than 12 mph (19 kph) | Weather | 123456 | 5 | Y
Hydroelectric (2.7%) | Water height differences | Drought | 123456 | 5 | Y
Geothermal (0.3%) | Natural steam or heat sources. Hot springs, geysers | Regional | 12-456 | 5 | Y
Aquafer | Natural cold water sources to cool buildings | Regional | 3 | - | N
(OTEC) Ocean thermal | Ocean thermal energy conversion. Ocean layer temperature differences of 20ºC (36ºF) | Regional | 123456 | 5 | Y
Hydrogen Fuel cells | Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water + energy | Supply | 123456 | Y | Y
Microbial Fuel cells | Soil bacteria + garbage + dirt = Soil + heat | Supply | 1--5 | N | N
Water (Hydrogen) | Water + solar energy = Hydrogen fuel cell + Oxygen | Supply | 12345 | Y | Y
Sound | God used this energy to create the world | Science research
Stored Energy | Generator | Petroleum | Volume | 1234- | 5 | Y
Battery | Secondary source of energy that can be charged by any primary source. This may solve the disadvantage of mobility and availability of energy from green fuels | Volume, size | 1234- | Y | -
Nuclear | Uranium Atoms (8.1%) | Nuclear reaction | Radioactive waste | 123456 | 5 | Y
Home Energy | 1 | Light | 2 | Cooking, Heating | 3 | Cooling | 4 | Electrical appliances | 5 | Stored energy | 6 | Power plant

Fractional Distillation separates the hydrocarbons to make sources of energy used to power stationary and mobile systems. Catalytic Cracking produces high octane gasoline.

Fossil Fuel Independence (Alternative Fuels).

Old Supplier | Green Energy Supplier | Consumer Energy Demands | Green Homes
--- | --- | --- | ---
Nuclear
Fossil | Coal
--- | ---
Gas
Petroleum
Diesel
Geothermal | Ocean Thermal | Solar
--- | --- | ---
Biofuels Biowaste | Power Plant | Wind
Hydroelectric | Chemical Battery | Steam
Transportation | Light | Cooling
--- | --- | ---
Appliances | Home | Heating
Emergency Generator | Energy Storage | Cooking
Battery
Solar Panels
Fuel Cell

Problems. There are several problems with these new forms of energy. The ultimate system depends on a good battery design and powerful, efficient solar-electric vehicles. Power suppliers must also convert to solar, wind and steam energy.

- Mobile Systems. The biggest problem is finding a good source of energy for mobile systems and a system to distribute them. Current engine designs are built for fossil fuels supplied by gas stations. Electric cars get their supply from fossil fuel power plants.
- Transitional Systems. Transitional automobile systems must process biofuel mixtures and solar/battery power. Generators must also switch to solar and biofuel energy instead of fossil fuels.
- Darkness. Energy can be generated at night by all systems except solar. Solar and wind energy can be stored in the form of chemical energy or heat and regenerated at night as steam.
- Inefficient. Biofuels are inefficient to produce, using more energy than they generate. If they are produced by cheap solar or wind energy then the trade off will be worth it.
- Not Green. Ethanol, Biofuels and biowaste also contribute to green house gases such as carbon dioxide, so they are not long term solutions but they can make us independent of oil. However, instead of burying the waste in land fills or the ocean, using them as energy could be a better way to dispose of them.
- Not Clean. There is no such thing as "clean coal" or "clean nuclear". They are more expensive and dangerous to create and the toxic waste must be disposed of and managed forever.
  Coal produces green house gases and the "clean" technology proposes burying the gas underground instead of in the air. This could create a future problem that we have not evaluated. No one knows what happens to this gas. Coal also produces soot and coal ash which is buried in landfills or kept in ponds. This ash has toxic heavy metals lead, mercury and arsenic which contaminate ground water.
  Nuclear produces radioactive waste that lasts thousands of years.

Alternative Fuel Infrastructure.

Oil | Germ |  | Ethanol Plant (Fermentation) | CO2
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Corn | Starch | Ethanol
Bran | Dry Distiller's Grain (High Protein)

Ideally, the best solution is a combination of solar and battery technology. Practically, unless businesses can engineer a constant flow of income from these systems, they will not develop them. Unless they can build in planned obsolescence or keep the service station model they will not support a system that will one day give the owner total independence from the energy producers. Therefore, they will invest in biofuels but not solar. Biofuels use a lot of energy in their production. Some estimate that they use more energy than they produce!. The best way to make this work is to use solar energy for processing. Manufacturers also remove the expensive bran and germ before fermenting the starch.

What if? | Since oil, coal and diamonds are carbon products created under pressure, is it possible that the oil fields have diamonds? And does the presence of diamonds indicate oil near by?
Energy Development. The key to our future energy needs is the development of reliable solar energy. Therefore, one major problem to resolve is the development of small batteries that can store large amounts of energy for long periods of time or long distances and can be recharged in minutes. One other possible breakthrough is the development if solar panels that can be shaped and colored so that they are pleasing to the eye and blend in with existing roofing material. Portable Emergency Energy. Why are there no solar generators?

Ecosystems

Terrestrial |  |
--- | --- | ---
Hydrosphere (Aquatic) |  |  | Subterranean (Hypogean)
Conrad
Subterranean
Mohorovic Discontinuity

Our world has many different worlds or biomes. There are oceans, deserts, rain forests, snow and ice, bodies of fresh water and the salt water ocean. Many different types of plants and animals were created to live in these different places. What makes them different is the temperature and the amount of water, sunlight and nutrients. With warm average temperatures and lots of water more life can be supported. With light, photosynthesis and plant growth occurs, attracting more life. The biomes exist in three zones.

- Terrestrial (Land or Epigean). Above ground.
- Subterranean (Hypogean). Underground systems including caves and aquifers.
- Aquatic (Water). Fresh water and marine (sea). The open ocean zones are based on many criteria, resulting in many names for the same region.
  - Light. Division is based on amount of sunlight that penetrates: Epipelagic, mesopelagic, Bathypelagic. This affects photosynthesis and the ability of plants to grow.
  - Depth. Division is based on depth which affects pressure: Euphotic, Dysphotic, Aphotic.

Ecosystem | Temperature | Water | Light | Features and Location
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Desert | Hot, cold | Dry | Sunlight Epigean | North Africa, Arabia, Australia, Central and South America
Tundra | Cool | Dry | Barren and treeless land. They are like deserts in cold climates. They are located in the northern hemisphere near the arctic ocean
Scrub | Dry summer | Wet winter | Florida
Grassland, Savannah | Windy | Dry | Mostly grass areas between deserts and forests. They are found in central Africa, South America, India and Australia
Coniferous Forest | Cool | Dry | Also called taiga or boreal forest. They are a continuous belt of coniferous trees in North America and Eurasia
Deciduous Forest | Cool | Wet | Regions where leaves change into many colors and lose leaves in autumn. Europe, Eastern North America
Temperate Rain Forest | Cool | Wet | Heavy rain. Areas with evergreen conifers and broadleaf deciduous trees on the western edge of north and south America
Tropical Rain Forest | Warm | Wet | Jungles with broadleaf evergreen trees, vines, found around the region of the Equator at 10º North and 10º south latitude below 3000 feet
Rhizosphere | Cool | Fresh | Hypogean | The region where soil interacts with roots
Karst | Cool, humid | Fresh | Formed by the underground erosion of rocks such as limestone, marble dolomite, gypsum and halite. It includes caves, sinkholes, springs, aquifers, underground streams
Anchialine | Cool, humid | Fresh, salty | Inland system near coastal groundwater in caves with no surface connection to the sea but affected by marine tides. Australia (Bundera sinkhole), Christmas Island
Ground water | Cool | Fresh | Aquifers and ground water in the water table
Lakes, rivers, ponds | Cool | Fresh | Intertidal Zone (Littoral) | Shallow to deep. Flowing or still in land pools of water
Wetlands, swamps | Humid | Fresh | Shallow, warm wet land with large trees
Temperate ponds | Cool | Fresh | Shallow, inland pools of water
Mangrove Forests | Warm | Shallow, salty, fresh | Found mostly in the Indo-Malayan region. They catch sediment and alluvial materials promoting sediment build up in tidal areas
Estuaries | Warm - cool | A semi-enclosed coastal body of water that has a measurable salinity gradient from its freshwater drainage to its ocean entrance
Mud Flats | Warm - cool | Fresh, salty | Mud and sandy mud exposed between the extreme high tide and extreme low tide marks. They form from the deposition of mud in sheltered tidal water, particularly in estuaries where there is a large sediment supply
Tidal Marsh | Warm - cool | Fresh, salty | Marine intertidal areas with soft substrate, colonized predominantly by grasses. They occur only where there is regular flooding and nearby sources of fine sediment
» | Salt marsh | Salt
» | Coastal fresh | Fresh
Coastal Ocean | Warm - cool | Shallow, salty | 10% of ocean area closest to land with 90% of species
» | Intertidal Zone | Warm - cool | Tidepools. Submerged in high tide and dry at low tide
» | Coral reef | Warm | Equator, tropics, shallow water near land
» | Kelp Forests | Cold | Neritic Zone (Open Water) (0-200 m) | Brown algae growing in clear, shallow, cold coastal water
» | Fast Ice | Cold | Ice attached to the land
» | Pack Ice | Cold | Floating drift ice assembled in a single mass found in the Arctic and Antarctic
» | Benthic | Cool | Shallow, sea bottom not exposed to air but exposed to tidal currents
» | Continental Shelf | Warm - Cool | Shallow | Gentle slope to 200 m, soft sediment, photosynthesis
Pelagic Zone | Warm | Shallow, salty | Sunlight Zone | Epipelagic zone (Euphotic zone) (0-200m 660 ft)
» | Open ocean | Warm | Warm water, plants, light, photosynthesis
» | Deep Sea | Cool | Deep, salty | Twilight Zone (1000 m) | Mesopelagic zone (Dysphotic) (200-1000 m 660-3,300 ft). High pressure, low light, no photosynthesis, no plants
» | Polar Ocean | Frigid | Found near the arctic and antarctic circles
» | Aphotic Zone | Cold 2ºC | Deep, salty, sulfur | Midnight Zone (6000 m) | Bathypelagic Zone (Aphotic) (1000- 4000 m 3300-9800 ft) Cold, dark, bioluminescence, high pressure (3 tons/inch2)
» | Abyssal zone | Cold | 4000-6000m
Cold Seeps | Cold | Cold sulfide rich ocean water
Benthic Zone | Ocean Floor and Trenches
Conrad Discontinuity (7.5-8.6 Km) | Hadal Zone (11000 m) | Seismic waves travel at a different speed above and below
Hydrothermal Vents | Hot | Dense, cold waters in the deep trenches (6000-11000 m). Cracks in the ocean floor where hot, sulfide rich ocean water meets cold water and creates precipitates
(Moho) Mohorovic Discontinuity | 32 Km [20 miles] | The boundary between the lower crust and the upper mantle. 75 Km thick at the continental shelf and 5 Km thick at the mid-ocean ridges
Kola Peninsula. The deepest bore hole is over 12 Km deep (12262 m). Water slows the speed of seismic waves. Perhaps the Moho is evidence of deep oceans or saturated rocks.
Florist. Arranges flowers for beauty | Farmer. Grows plants for food. Read about organic gardening here

Trees and Flowers

Botany | The study of plants.

People need trees to provide the air we breathe, clothes, the food we eat and to build houses. Their flowers give us beauty and fruit, and they provide shade from the sun.
In the day light trees breathe in (inhale) carbon dioxide and breathe out (exhale) oxygen. The process is reversed at night. Animals only breathe in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. So plants and people need each other to provide good air.
People can make Vitamin D from the sun, but we cannot use it to provide the amount of food we need. But plants do this for us. Plants take energy from the sun, water and minerals from the earth to make fruits, seeds and nuts.
Fruits and flowers are food to animals but they are the reproductive system of plants. It is the flowers that eventually produce fruits and seeds. These seeds grow into new plants. The parts of a plant are:

- Root. The root is a part of the digestive system of the plant. It drinks water and minerals that the plant needs to make food.
- Trunk and branches. They are like the skeleton of a plant. They support the tree and contain tubes through which water travels from the root to the leaves.
- Leaf. Plants use the leaf to make food from the sunlight, to breathe and to evaporate water. So, a leaf functions as the digestive, respiratory and urinary system of a plant.
- Flower. A flower is the reproductive system of the plant. In most plants they contain both the male and female parts.
- Seed. A seed is the egg of the plant. It is produced from the flower.
- Fruit. A fruit is like the baby of a plant. It is produced only when the female flower is fertilized. It contains the baby and the food that the baby needs to grow. A seed does not eat the fruit, but it uses the fruit to attract animals. When the animals take the fruit, they take the seeds and scatter them so that a new plant can grow in another place.

God created some very interesting plants.

Weird Plants |
The Walking Banyan Tree
The largest banyan tree has 1775 trunks. The Thomas Edison Museum in Florida has the third largest banyan tree which is over 400 feet wide. (122 meters)
A forest of one tree. The banyan tree is a fig tree that grows in Southeast Asia and India. It has multiple branches that grow down into the ground so that they appear to look like another tree. Therefore it is called the walking Banyan tree. As the branch grows, it send down shoots that eventually reach the ground. They become so big that they look like a tree trunk. So the tree spreads by creating these new trunks from its branches.
Corpse Plant | It has a giant flower 6 to 9 feet tall found in Sumatra. The flower blooms every 1 to 3 years and dies after just 2 days. It smells like rotting garbage, rotten eggs or a dead animal from up to half a mile away.
Male and female tree | Most trees have flowers that contain separate male and the female parts in close proximity. These trees can reproduce by themselves. But dioecious trees grow as a separate male and female tree. The ginkgo and date palm are examples of these trees.
Carnivorous plants | Some plants like the venus flytrap and the pitcher plant eat meat! They lure insects to their death with pretty colors and a sweel smell. The venus flytrap has leaves that are shaped like a jaw and they snap shut when an insect walks in. The pitcher plant has a lid that can be closed when it traps an insect. mmmm soup!
Male trees give more pollen. Most cities are planted with them | Botanist. Studies trees and plants

Farming (Organic)
This is the science of managing crops without using artificial seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Adam was the first organic farmer. God gave him the task of caring for the animals and the garden and to farm the land.

- Soil Preparation.
  - Test Soil. Find missing nutrients, pH and soil type (loam, silt, sandy or clay).
  - Remove Weeds. Rake, water and remove the weeds every week for four weeks.
    Soil Solarization. This is a method to kill harmful fungi, bacteria, nematodes, weeds, and certain insects. It works in warm climates and with small gardens. Cover the moist soil with transparent plastic film and allow the sun to heat the soil for four to eight weeks.
  - Loosen Soil. Aerates. Easier for the roots to go through.
  - Soil Amendments. Add missing ingredients to improve composition and texture.
    » pH: Plants need a neutral pH. Most fruit 6.5 best (5.5-7.2). Blueberries (4.8-5.2)
  - Organic Compost. Fertilizer. Add in the fall. It must be totally decomposed or it will take nitrogen from the soil to continue the process.
    Commercial organic fertilizer can contain decomposed animals.
  - Worms. If they do not come naturally, then add them.
  - Plant Legumes First Year. Fixes nitrogen to the soil.
  - Mulch. Keeps moisture in.
- Fertilizer ("Plant Food"). A method of applying plant nutrients to the soil.
  - Water and Carbon dioxide. Plants breathe in carbon dioxide and drink water.

    Plant Nutrients
    Name | Source | Use
    --- | --- | ---
    1 | C | Carbon | Air | Starch, cells
    2 | H | Hydrogen | Water | Starch, cells
    3 | O | Oxygen | Water | Starch, cells
    4 | N | Nitrogen | Soil, urea, green manure | Leaf, stem
    5 | S | Sulphur | Potash | Chlorophyll
    6 | P | Phosphorous | Potash | Fruit, root
    7 | K | Potassium | Soil | Metabolism, fruit
    8 | Ca | Calcium | Soil | Cell wall
    9 | Mg | Magnesium | Soil | Chlorophyll
    Micronutrients
    10 | Fe | Iron | Soil | Chlorophyll
    11 | Zn | Zinc | Soil | Photosynthesis
    12 | Mb | Molybdenum | Soil | Hormones
    13 | Mn | Manganese | Soil | Vitamins
    14 | Bo | Boron | Soil | Fruit, seed
    15 | Cu | Copper | Soil | Enzymes
    16 | Co | Cobalt | Soil | Nitrogen fixation
    17 | Cl | Chlorine | Soil | Photosynthesis

  - Vermicomposting. Make compost by using red earthworms to break down garbage. Worms also leave other particles "castings" that add nutrients. But it does not create temperatures that are high enough to kill pathogens. Use for food, paper and yard waste. It takes six months to break down organic materials if they are not shredded.
  - Aerobic Composting. Addition of dead plant material, seaweed, coffee grounds and filters, vegetable food scraps, manure, news paper, saw dust, moisture in a pile to heat and rot in the sunshine. Piles should be no bigger than 3x3x3 feet (90x90x90 cm). Turn every two weeks to add air to the inner layers. It takes from three to four weeks to two years to decompose depending on how much work you do in shredding the materials and aerating it. Temperatue should be between 104-131ºF. Add more grass clippings and green vegetation to increase the rate.
    » Carbon: Dried leaves, straw, hay, sawdust, or shredded paper.
    » Nitrogen: Grass clippings, hay, legumes, manure, ammonium nitrate (urea).
    » Phosphorous:
    » Sulphur: Acid rain, gypsum
    » Calcium and Magnesium: Dolomitic limestone, gypsum
    » Potassium: Wood ash, greensand, granite meal
    » pH: Alkaline (raise ph) (lime, wood ash). Acid (lowers pH): sulfur, pine needles, peat moss.
  - Green Manure (Cover Plant). A legume that is planted then put pack into the soil to rot. Adds nutrients and prevents erosion.
  - Manure. Waste from animals. Use organically fed, grass fed, free range vegetarian animals. Modern animal feed is made from dead animals and is fed to vegetarian animals.
    Rendering. The process of using dead animals, pets, discarded meat, road kill, manure, sawdust and garbage to make feed for animals.
  - Mulch. A blanket of materials that keep mositure from evaporating.
  - Fallow. Do not grow anything on the soil. Decaying plants, rocks and soil will add nutrients.
  - Chemical Fertilizer (NKP). They provide the top three nutrients: Nitrogen, Potassium (Potash) and Phosphorous. But it should not be used in an organic garden.
  - Bone Meal and Blood Meal. Ground up animal parts.
    The fine dust may contain prions which cause CFJ (mad cow disease).
- Pest Control.
  - Herbal. Garlic and hot pepper spray teas. Organic cornmeal kills fungus.
  - Natural Predators. Lady bugs kill aphids.
  - Crop Rotation. Disrupts the natural cycle of pests that feed on specific plant families.
  - Diatomaceous Earth. Finely crushed fossils of freshwater and sea animals that look like broken glass. They cut the outer shell of insects. It contains silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide,iron oxide, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide. And trace amounts of copper, strontium, titanium, manganese, sodium, vanadium, boron and zirconium.
    It affects ants, aphids, bollworm, salt marsh caterpillar, cockroach, cornworm, earwig, house fly, fruit fly, lead perforator, leaf hopper, lygus bug, mite, pink boll weevil, red spider mite, slugs, snail, termites, Japanese beetle (grub stage) and many other insects.
    Breathing fine dust particles is not good for humans.
  - Fence. Keeps large animals away.
- Irrigation. Method of watering the plants. Water in the early morning.
  - Rainfall. A soaking rain every 10-14 days, otherwise must be done artificially.
  - Drip (Trickle). Water is delivered at the root drop by drop.
  - Sprinkler (Overhead). Sprays or sprinklers.
  - Flood.
  - Subirrigation. Watering from below. Hydroponics grow plants in nutrient rich water.
  - Other. Center Pivot and Lateral Move.
  - Aquifer Mist. Adam had an automatic sprinkler system. Every morning a mist would come from the ground water aquifer to water the earth.
- Crop Rotation. Changing the crops grown in a field in a planned sequence that takes advantage of the nutrients used or created by each crop and the effect of each crop on the soil.
- Planting. Plant twice as deep as the seed is wide.

Crop Rotation.
This does not mean that the entire field should be planted with only one crop every year. The field can be divided into different sections that grow a variety of crops, but each section must be rotated every year. Legumes make nitrates, cereals use nitrates so they should be rotated in sequence. Rotate crops by the type of family, nutrient use and depth of root system (deep or shallow).

Rotation Method | Crops
--- | ---
Year 1 | Year 2 | Year 3 | Year 4 | Year 5 | Year 6 | Year 7
Cereal | Three Year | Rye | Barley | Fallow | Rye (winter wheat), barley (spring oats)
Four Field | Wheat | Barley | Turnips | Clover | Wheat | Barley | Turnips
Vegetable Crops | Two Field | Beans | Corn | Beans | Corn | Beans | Corn | Beans
Five Field | Grain, corn | Root | Leafy | Legume | Fallow | Green manure | Grain
Other | Bean, corn | Leafy | Root | Green manure | Bean | Leafy | Root
Seven Year | Bean, corn | Root | Cabbage | Peas | Tomato | Pumpkin | Fallow
Bean, peas | Corn | Peppers | Green manure | Carrot | Legume | Fallow
Fruit Crops | Fruit | Fruit do not deplete the soil easily. But cover crops can be rotated near them and compost added. Too much nutrients may promote leaf growth instead of fruit. The first flowers are usually male. Pollination must occur for the female flower to produce fruit. So a fruit farm requires bees or butterflies.
Plant Families: Legumes (beans), cereal, grain, pumpkin, tomato, tarot (root), cruciferous (leafy). Cabbage Family. Broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale. Green Peppers. They are immature peppers of the colorful varieties. Scallion (Green Onion). Immature onions.

Microgreens. Plants can be grown in soil and harvested in small trays indoors near well lighted windows in 7 to 14 days. Microgreens are the stems, seed leaf and first set of true leaves of the seed.
Biblical Farming Principles. These principles are based on the Plan of Salvation.

- Fallow (Land Sabbaths). Every seven years, the land must lie fallow for one year (no planting done). In year fifty the land must also have rest. So Sabbath years are year 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49 and 50.
- Mixed Gardens. A field must only be planted with one crop.
- Fruit. Fruit cannot be given to God until the fourth year of growth after the biblical rules are used.

Companion Planting.
While some plants can be planted near each other, other plants should not be planted close to each other or rotated in the same field in successive years.

Crop | Incompatible
--- | ---
Beans | Onion, beet, kohlrabi, sunflower
Broccoli | Grapes, lettuce
Cabbage | Tomato, dill, strawberry, beans
Carrot | Anise, dill, caraway
Corn | Tomato
Cucumber | Potato, sage
Lettuce | Broccoli, fava bean, rye, wheat, barley
Onion | Beans, peas, sage, rue
Irish Potato | Squash, pumpkin, zucchini, sunflower, onion, carrot, cucumber, tomato, peas, turnip, pepper, eggplant, melon, pear
Tomato | Potato, cabbage, corn, kohlrabi, fennel
Grapes | Blackberry, peach, collard, kale, radish, peas, cabbage, beans, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower
Strawberry | Cabbage
Dill | Cabbage, carrot
Fennel | Most plants
Wormwood | Most vegetables
Irish Potatoes. They should not be planted where tomatoes, peppers or eggplants grew previously. Sweet Potato. The enemies are not known.
Sample Field Design
Bed | Major Crop | Companion Crop
--- | --- | ---
1 | Cabbage | Celery, spinach, chard, lettuce, beet, grapes, mint, thyme
2 | Potato | Corn, cabbage, broccoli, basil
3 | Corn | Beans, peas, squash, pumpkin, watermelon
4 | Beans | Corn, peas, cucumber, broccoli
5 | Pepper | Carrot, cucumber, lettuce, oregano
6 | Tomato | Carrot, cucumber, asparagus, basil
7 | Spinach | Zucchini, celery, parsley
8 | Zucchini | Lettuce, squash, peppers
9 | Onion | Carrot, pepper, beet, garlic
10 | Melon | Strawberry, all bush berries
11 | Strawberry | Grapes, blueberry, raspberry
12 | Grapes | Strawberry, blueberry, melon
Crop | Compatible
--- | ---
Beans | Most herbs and vegetables, eggplant, pepper
Broccoli | Beans, cucumber, tomato, potato, celery, leek, onion, garlic
Cabbage | Celery, beet, onion, spinach, chard, celery, leek, thyme, sage, mint
Carrot | Peas, lettuce, onion, tomato, leek, pepper, sage
Cauliflower | Onion, kale, chinese cabbage, sage, thyme, peppermint
Corn | Potato, beans, peas, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, melons
Lettuce | Carrot, bean, onion, radish, strawberry, cucumber, collard
Onion | Cabbage, lettuce, beet, carrot, pepper, cucumber, tomato, squash, strawberry
Spinach | Fava beans, strawberry, pea, celery, corn, cabbage, eggplant
Peas | Beans, corn, carrot, radish, turnip, cucumber
Pepper | Bean, carrot, onion, tomato, oregano, basil, spinach
Potato | Beans, corn, cabbage, brussels sprout
Tomato | Carrot, onion, cucumber, asparagus, pepper, marigold, mint, basil, borage
Zucchini | Lettuce, peppermint, peppers, corn, spinach, silver beet, squash, tomato, parsley
Berries | Grapes, lettuce, spinach, onion, tansy, nasturtium
Grapes | Strawberries, bush berries, hyssop
Melon | Corn, radish, nasturtium
Basil | Pepper, tomato, cauliflower, broccoli, beans, cabbage, kale, collard, brussels sprout
Henbit | Most plants. Insect repellant, chive
Marigold | Most plants
Mint | Cabbage, tomato, beans, broccoli, cauliflower
Tarragon | Most vegetables
Thyme | Cabbage, carrot, onion, sage, rosemary
Bush Berries. Raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, gooseberry, currants.
Your Garden | Plant an organic garden with at least three different fruit and vegetables and save seeds to plant next year. e.g. Cantaloupe, pumpkin, tomato, bell pepper.
If you can care for your garden maybe you can care for a pet

Experiment | Grow a bean in a cup. If you split open a bean you will see a tiny baby tree inside. It has a leaf and roots.

Imagine | The Tree of Life in heaven grows on both sides of the river of life. Maybe it grows like a walking banyan tree. This tree grows twelve kinds of fruit. There is no other tree like this on the earth. Every month it bears a different fruit. Its leaves are edible and maybe its trunk smells nicer than the Allspice tree. Maybe it has a different smell every month.

The Sun, Moon and Stars

Creation Day 4 (Wednesday) | God created space on the second day and filled it with the planets in our solar system on the fourth day. The Bible says "He made the stars also". This could mean that He made the stars that same day, or it is simply saying that He made the stars that we can see from our earth. I believe that He made them on that day. Because He is so incredibly awesome!
Sun and Moon | God filled the fourth day with the creation of the first day. Since nucleosynthesis by burning hygrogen ends with nickel, God needed another source of light and He created the sun. The sun burns hydrogen and helium in the same process of nucleosynthesis to produce light.

Planet | Distance | Diameter (Km) | Mass x10 22 (kg)
--- | --- | --- | ---
AU | 106Km
| Sun | 0 | 0 | 1392000 | 19891 x10 4
| Mercury | .387 | 57.9 | 4879 | 33.02
| Venus | .72 | 108.2 | 12104 | 486.85
| Earth | 1 | 149.6 | 12756 | 597.36
» | Moon | 3575 | 7.348
| Mars | 1.52 | 227.9 | 6805 | 64.185
The Asteroid Belt
| Ceres | 2.766 | - | 975x909 | .095
| Jupiter | 5.2 | 778.3 | 142984 | 189900
| Saturn | 9.54 | 1427.0 | 120536 | 56846
| Uranus | 19.22 | 2869.0 | 51118 | 8683.2
| Neptune | 30.06 | 4497.1 | 49528 | 10243
Kuiper Belt
| Pluto | 39.50 | 5900.0 | 2390 | .125
| Charon | 39.40 | 5900.0 | 1207 | .151
Orcus | 39.4 | - | 1500 | ?
Ixion | 39.6 | - | 822 | ?
Varuna | 43.0 | - | 1060 | ?
2003 EL61 | 43.3 | - | 1960 | .42
Quaoar | 43.4 | - | 1250 | .1-.26
| 2005 FY9 | 45.79 | - | 1800 | -
Scattered Disc
| Eris 2003 UB313 | 68 | 18000 | 2600 | ?
Oort Cloud
Sedna | 502.0 | 13500.0 | 1180-1800 | .17-.61
1 astronomical unit (AU) is the distance of the earth from the sun or 149,597,870.691 Km. (92,955,807 miles)
Geography Project: Build a three dimensional landscape of the Moon or Mars.
Cosmologist. Studies the solar system. Astronomer. Studies the stars and planets.
Telescope. Instrument for viewing distant objects

Astronomy | The study of the stars and planets and other objects in space.

Solar System

Enter Your Weight | What is your weight? It depends on the weight of the planet where you are standing. Enter your weight on earth and click on another planet to see what your weight would be. | New weight on
Engineer. Uses science and technology to design and build systems

There were nine planets in our solar system. Now there are eight "classical planets". Scientists redefined the word planet after recent discoveries of other large Kuiper belt objects such as 2003 UB313, which has a diameter of 2600 km, making it larger than Pluto.

> A planet is an object that orbits a star and has enough gravity to maintain a spherical shape. It must not be a star or the satellite of another planet and it must dominate its vicinity.

Planets in our solar system are divided into these groups:

1. Terrestrial ("Rocky"). Those like the earth are small, dense and rocky with a solid surface.
2. Jovian Planets ("Gas Giant"). Those like Jupiter which are large, made of gases or fluid, lighter and colder with no solid surface. They all have rings.
   "Ice Giants". They have less Hydrogen and Helium and more rock and ice.
3. Dwarf Planet. Smaller planets. e.g. Ceres, Pluto, Charon, Xena.
   "Ice Dwarfs". Objects, like Pluto, whose composition is primarily ice.

Exoplanets. Planets found outside our solar system.

Moon (Natural Satellites)
Many of these planets have other natural satellites or objects (moons) that orbit them. Some of these smaller moons have only been discovered since 2002.
Our Moon is 384,403 Km (238,857 miles) from the Earth. It has a diameter of 3476.2 km and weighs 7.347673 x 1022 kg. It takes 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes to go around the earth.
Only Triton and Titan have an atmosphere.

Planet | Year | Day | Natural Satellites (Moons) | Rings | First Space Vehicle
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Mercury | 87.97 days | 59 days | 0 | 0 | 0 | Mariner 10 (March 29, 1974)
Venus | 224.7 days | 243 days | 0 | 0 | 0 | Venera 1 (February 12, 1961)
Earth | 365.22 days | 23 hrs. 56 min. | 1 | Moon (Luna) | 0 | Sputnik (October 4, 1957)
» | Moon | 27 days 7 hrs. 43 min. | Luna 1 (January 2, 1959)
Mars | 686.98 days | 24 hrs. 37 min. | 2 | Phobos, Deimos | 0 | Mariner 4 (July 14, 1965)
Jupiter | 4,332.7 days | 9 hrs. 55 min. | 63 | Ganymede, Callisto, Io, Europa, Himalia, Amalthea, Thebe, Elara, Pasiphae, Metis, Adrastea, Carme, Lysithea, Sinope, Anake, Leda | 4 | Pioneer 10 (March 3, 1972)
Saturn | 10,759 days | 10 hrs. 39 min | 56 | Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus, Mimas, Janus, Epimetheus, Hyperion, Phoebe, Prometheus, Pandora, Helene, Atlas, Telesto, Pan, Calypso | 14 named | Pioneer 11 (September 1, 1979)
Uranus | 30,685 days | 17 hrs. 8 min. | 27 | Titania, Oberon, Umbrial, Ariel, Miranda, Puck, Portia, Juliet, Belinda, Cressida, Desdemona, Rosaline, Ophelia, Bianca, Cordelia | 11 named | Voyager 2 (January 24, 1986)
Neptune | 60,190 days | 16 hrs. 7 min. | 13 | Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Proteus, Triton, Neried. Five other moons were announced in 2004. | 9 named | Voyager 2 (August 24, 1989)
Pluto | 90,800 days | 6 days | 3 | Charon, S/2005P1, S/2005P2 | 0 | -
Sedna | 11,487 years | 20-50 days | 0 | 2003 VB12 was found on November 14 | 0 | -
Apollo 11 (July 20, 1969). Neil Armstrong was the first human to walk on the Moon. Edwin Aldrin was the second. Echo 1A was the first communications satellite. It was launched in 1960. Sputnik 2 (November 3, 1957). A dog, Laika, was launched and it became the first modern creature in space. Neptune Rotates on its side. Chariot 1 (922 B.C.). Elijah became the first creature from Earth to travel to space in a vehicle. (2 Kings 2: 11) But Enoch and Moses travelled before him either by vehicle or by whole body transportation with clouds (rapture) like Jesus

Galaxy

Galaxy | Location | Shape
--- | --- | ---
Milky Way | Sagittarius | Spiral
Large Megellanic Cloud | Irregular
Small Megellanic Cloud | Irregular
Triffid Nebula (M20) | Irregular
Lagoon Nebula (M8) | Irrugular
Orion Nebula (M42) | Orion | Irregular
M43 | Irregular
Horsehead Nebula (Omega, Swan) (M17) (IC 434) | Irregular
Flame Nebula (Christmas Tree) | Irregular
Butterfly Cluster (M6) | Irregular
Crab Nebula (M1) | Taurus | Elliptical
Pleiades (M45), seven sisters | Irregular
Hyades | Spiral
Hercules Cluster (M13) | Hercules | Irregular
Virgo A (M87) | Virgo | Elliptical
M60 | Elliptical
Sombrero (M104) | Spiral
Andromeda Galaxy (M31) | Andromeda | Spiral
M32 | Elliptical
Whirlpool (M51) | Canes Venatici | Spiral
Sunflower Galaxy (M63) | Spiral
Pinwheel (M101, M102) | Ursa Major | Spiral
Cigar Galaxy (M82) | Irregular
Winecke 4 (M40) | Double star
Owl Nebula (M97) | Irregular
Bode's Galaxy (M81) | Spiral
Messier 77 | Cetus | Spiral
Southern Pinwheel (M83) | Hydra | Barred
Antennae | Corvus | Irregular
Cartwheel | Sculptor | Irregular
Ring Nebula (M57) | Lyra | Circular
Beehive Cluster (Praesepe) (M44) | Cancer | Irregular
Triangulum Galaxy (M33) | Triangulum | Spiral
Blackeye Galaxy (M64) | Coma Berenices | Spiral
Dumbell Nebula (M27) | Vulpecula | Irregular
Little Dumbell, Cork, Butterfly (M76) | Perseus | Irregular
Eagle Nebula (M16) | Serpens | Irregular
Wild Duck Cluster (M11) | Scutum | Irregular
Ptolemy's Cluster (M7) | Scorpius | Irregular

Meteor, comet, Gaspra asteroid, Milky Way, Pleiades, Phobos (moon of Mars), Large Megellanic Cloud, Deimos (moon of Mars), Andromeda (M31), eclipse, Shoemaker-Levy comet, M32, Saturn, Venus and the Pinwheel.

They used to be called Nebulae because of their cloudy appearance. Galaxies are huge collections of solar systems circulating in one of three definable shapes. They have a central nucleus and rotate like a solar system.
The three known shapes are:

1. Spiral. (Barred spiral)
2. Elliptical.
3. Irregular. Have no specific form because they are either single galaxies with a unique shape or colliding galaxies.
   The Milky Way galaxy is 100,000 light years in diameter and interacts with two neighboring galaxies - the large and small Megellanic Clouds. The constellation Sagittarius is at the center of the Galaxy. Our solar system is located two thirds of the way out from the center of the Milky Way galaxy and our sun takes 200 million years to complete one pass around the center.
   The Crab Nebula is a supernova remnant which was first observed in 1054 A.D.

Sun
The sun is the closest star to the earth. It is a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gas that is expected to burn another five billion years and end its life by becoming a red giant when it loses its hydrogen. It will expand in size to engulf Mercury and Venus and possibly the earth. The earth will get hotter. Then it will become a white dwarf. This process might take only a few minutes! Then the earth will get darker. After it cools it becomes a black dwarf.

Star Classification
Stars are classified by their temperature and color. There are seven main types.

Type | Color | Temperature | Size (Mass-Radius) | Example
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
O | Blue | > 30,000K | 60 | 15 | 10 Lacerta, Zeta Puppis, Hatysa, Alnitak
B | Blue-white | 10000-30000K | 18 | 7 | Rigel, Spica, Alnilam, Achernar, Pleiades
A | White-Blue | 7500-10000K | 3.2 | 2.5 | Sirius, Vega, Altair, Deneb
F | Yellow-White | 6000-7500 | 1.7 | 1.3 | Procyon, Canopus
G | Light Yellow | 5000-6000 | 1.1 | 1.1 | Sun, Capella, Alpha Centauri
K | Orange-Red | 3500-5000 | .8 | .9 | Arcturus, Aldebaran, Pollux, Atria
M | Red | < 3500 | .3 | .4 | Betelgeuse, Antares, Proxima Centauri

Star | Location | Comment
--- | --- | ---
| Sun | Milky Way | Morning and Evening Star. They are not stars. It refers to Venus and sometimes Mercury which can be seen near the sun at sunrise and sunset.
1 | Sirius | Canis Major
2 | Canopus | Carina | NAVSTAR GPS. The Navigation System with Timing And Ranging (NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS), is a series of 24 satellites launched at 20,200 km circular orbits between 22 February 1978 and 9 March 1994. By 17 November 2006 there were 31 satellites. It was developed by the US Department of Defense to provide all weather continuous navigation capabilities for military ground, sea, air forces and civilian applications. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). A set of three satellite constellations used for navigation systems which includes GPS, GLONASS and Galileo. GLONASS is the Russian system and Galileo is a European system which will have 30 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites.
3 | Arcturus | Bootes
4 | Alpha Centauri | Centaurus
5 | Vega | Lyra
6 | Capella | Auriga
8 | Procyon | Canis Minor
7 | Rigel | Orion | Rigel. Blue super giant and brightest star in Orion. Theta. A giant blue star. The brightest star in the Trapezium in the Orion Nebula. Betelgeuse. Red giant in Orion. Belt of Orion. Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka Sword of Orion. NGC1981, C Orionis, Orion Nebula and Hatysa. Polaris (Cynosura). The north star. It is at the tail of the little dipper. Sun. The brightest star in the sky. A yellow dwarf. Sirius. The brightest star in the sky. A binary star. Sirius B is a white dwarf. Proxima Centauri. The sun's nearest neighbour, a red dwarf, 4.2 light years away. Aldebaran. Orange giant that forms the eye of Taurus. Capella. A yellow binary star. Algol. Blue dwarf star in Perseus. Arcturus. The third brightest star in the sky.
- | Theta
11 | Betelgeuse
13 | Altair | Aquila
14 | Aldebaran | Taurus
15 | Antares | Scorpio
16 | Spica | Virgo
19 | Deneb | Cygnus
48 | Polaris | Little Dipper
65 | Gemma | Corona Borealis

There are over 100 billion stars in our galaxy and there are at least 50 billion galaxies in the universe. There are other stars that are visible from the earth, example: Polaris, Sirius, Vega, Capella, Arcturus, Rigel, Procyon, Altair, Betelgeuse, Aldebaran, Pollux, Spica, Antares, Deneb, Regulus, Castor and Algol.

Life Cycle Of A Star.

Region | Asteroid Group | Orbit | Family
--- | --- | --- | ---
Sun to Earth | Vulcanoid | 0.4 AU | Hypothetical. In the orbit of Mercury
Apoheles | <1 AU | Within the orbit of Earth
Arjuna | 1 AU | Orbits similar to earth
Earth Trojans | Earth-Sun L4-L5 | -
Earth to Mars | Near Earth Objects | 1 AU | Aten
>1 AU | Apollo
1.017 - 1.3 AU | Amor
Mars-Crosser | - | Orbits cross Mars
Mars Trojan | - | None confirmed
Mars to Jupiter | The Asteroid Belt | Most asteroids exist in this region
The Main Belt | 2 - 4 AU
I | 2.3-2.5 AU | Hungarias, Phocaeas, Floras, Nysas
II | 2.5-2.706 AU | Alinda, Pallas, Marias
IIb | 2.706-2.82 AU | Ceres
IIIa | 2.82-3.03 AU | Koronis, Eos
IIIb | 3.03-3.27 AU | -
Cybele | 3.27-3.7 AU | -
Hildas | 3.7-4.2 AU | -
Thule | 4.2-5.05 AU | -
Trojan | 5.05-5.4 AU | -
Beyond Jupiter | Damocloid | Asteroids in this region and beyond may be composed of ice or other volatile substances and are similar to comets
Centaurs | A class of icy planetoids that orbit the sun between Jupiter and Neptune. Some Centaur asteroids are: Asbolus, Nessus, Pholus and Chiron.
Neptune Trojans | - | 2001 QR322
Trans-Neptunian Objects | >30 AU | Kuiper Belt Objects and the Oort cloud
1 | Kuiper Belt Objects | 30-50 AU | Icy asteroids
39-40.5 AU | Plutinos
40.5-47 AU | Cubewanos
>100 AU | Scattered disk objects
2 | Oort Cloud | 50,000-100,000 AU | Hypothetical cloud of comets

The nuclear reactions in a star give off radiation that causes it to shine. Eventually, this fuel will burn out and the star will die.
The rate at which a star dies, the violence with which it dies, and its final form depends on the mass of the star.

- Low mass stars like the sun live longer (hundreds of billions of years), die quietly and become white dwarfs.
- Medium mass explode and form a neutron star.
- High mass stars live a few million years, die in massive supernova explosion and form a black hole.

Eclipse
Eclipses occur when the light from the sun or the moon is blocked by the shadow of the moon or the earth.
A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the Earth and the sun and the moon casts its shadow on the earth.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth casts its shadow on the moon.

Space Debris
Many small objects wander around the universe, sometimes in a long orbit and other times by gravitational pull. Periodically, these objects from space interact with the earth. There are three types - comets, meteors and asteroids.
Asteroid
Asteroids are large, solid pieces of rocks greater than 50 meters wide that may be hundreds of miles long. They are little planets that mostly originate in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Objects less than 50 meters wide are called meteoroids. One classification of asteroids is the distance at which they orbit (Orbital radius). This classification helps to see which asteroids might impact the earth.
Modern Asteroids. In modern times several asteroids and fireballs have struck the earth.
Tunguska Event. On July 30 1908, a massive explosion of an asteroid above the forests of Russia destroyed 1000 square miles.
In 1947 another struck Siberia.
On August 10, 1972 a large fireball appeared over Canada and the Eastern United States.
In 1992 a fireball was observed over Florida.
In 2001, one appeared over Washington D.C.
On July 8, 2004, a 100 Lb meteor came over the south central USA (Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri)
Chelyabinsk. February 15, 2013. an 11 ton meteor strikes Chelyabinsk Russia. 725 injured, buildings damaged.

Ancient Asteroids. Asteroids have been blamed for the destruction of the dinosaurs. This is partly correct. During the flood, the earth was struck with something with such force that it broke up the surface and tilted the orbit 23.5 degrees. Ever since that time, we have had different seasons, the land mass was separated and the oceans dominated the surface.

Asteroid | Dimensions | Class | Comment
--- | --- | --- | ---
2004 FH | 30m | Aten | Passed 43,000 km by earth on March 18, 2004
1999 KW4 | 1.2 km | Aten | NEA. Has a 400m moon that orbits every 16 hours.
Cruithne | 5 km | Aten | NEA
Apophis | 415 m | Aten | NEA
1950 DA | 1.1 km | - | Has a 1:300 chance of hitting earth on March 16, 2880
Asclepius (1989FC) | 30m | Apollo | March 23, 1989 it missed earth by 400,000 miles. It crossed where earth had been 6 hours before
Sisyphus | 10 Km | Apollo | Largest Apollo asteroid
Hermes | Two 300-450m | Apollo | Binary asteroid
Toutatis | 4.5x2.4x1.9Km | Apollo | Contact binary
Eros | 33x13x13Km | Amor | NEAR spacecraft lands here
Ganymed | 32 Km | Amor | Largest Amor
Ceres | 1003 Km | Alinda | Largest asteroid
Pallas | 608 Km | Alinda | Second largest asteroid
Vesta | 538 Km | Alinda | Third largest asteroid
Gaspra | 19x12x11Km | Floras | First fly by of an asteroid
Chiron | 170 Km | Centaur | It is a comet and an asteroid
Hektor | 116 Km | Trojan | Largest Trojan
Achilles | 370 x 195 Km | Trojan | First Trojan discovered
The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft landed on Eros on February 14, 2000 after a 4 year trip

Near Earth Objects
Asteroid can be classified by their average orbital diameters. This is reported in astronomical units (AU). This is the distance from the Earth to the Sun. But only three of these groups are near Earth asteroids (NEA) that actually cross the path of the earth.
As of April 2004, there are 708 of these that are over one km wide. Objects that large can destroy the earth. As of November 2006 there were 831 potentially hazardous asteroids (PHA) discovered.

- Aten. (1 AU). They are at least 217 of these that are inside the orbit of Earth. e.g. Apophis
- Apollo. (> 1 AU) Near Earth asteroids that orbit the sun beyond the earth. However, they can cross the path of the earth. There are at least 1600 Apollo asteroids including:
  2004 ASI, 1998 KY26, 1997 XR2, Hermes, 1999 JM8, 1998 ML14, 1997 XF11, 1950 DA, Itokawa, Golevka, Castalia, Nereus, Asclepius, Mithra, 1982 TA, Cuno, Toutatis, Wilson-Harrington, Phaeton, Adonis, Bacchus, Sisyphus, Apollo, Toro, Geographos, Icarus.
- Amor. (1.017 - 1.3 AU) Near Earth asteroids that orbit between earth and mars but do not cross the orbit of the earth.
  There are at least 1114 Amor asteroids including:
  Nyx, Amor, Ganymed, Alinda, Albert, Eros.

Comet | Period (Years) | Last Seen | Next
--- | --- | --- | ---
Halley | 76.1 | 1986 | 2061
Shoemaker-Levy 9 | 17.8 | 1994 | Lost July 1994, hit Jupiter
Hale-Bopp | 2300-4300 | 1996 | 4300
Faye | 7.34 | 1999 | (2006) Discovered November 23, 1843
Encke | 3.30 | 2000 | 2003
Biela's | 6.62 | 1852 | Lost
Kohoutek | 6.67 | 2001 | 2007
Tempel-Tuttle | 33 | 1998 | Lost
Swift-Tuttle | 135 | 1992 | 2126
Tuttle | 13.51 | 1994 | 2008
Hyakutake | 8-14000 | 1996 | 18000 A.D.
Halley's comet has appeared at the conquest of some famous political leaders and nations. 44 B.C. - Julius Caesar 66 A.D. - Masada 451 A.D. - The fall of Atilla the Hun 530 A.D. - Church 1066 A.D. - Battle of Hastings

Comets
Comets orbit the sun. There are over 100 known comets but there may be thousands more. Comets are dirty snow balls with a bright head and a long tail. They were called "broom stars" by early observers because of their shape. They are called "dirty snow balls" because they are believed to be made of ice and dirt. The tail is formed when the ice melts and a separate tail can be formed from the trail of dust and water.
This trail of dust causes a meteor shower when the dust eventually reaches the atmosphere.

Meteors
Meteors are the temporary bright streaks of light that sometimes appear in the night sky at an altitude of about 100 Km. They are small particles that are normally the size of a grain of sand. They enter the atmosphere at speeds of up to 70 Km/second. A large number of these occurring at the same time are called a shower. The most famous are the Leonid Meteor showers which show increased activity every 33 years. The famous showers on the night of November 12-13, 1833 started interest in astronomy and led many people to believe that the world was ending.
Meteor Showers. Meteor shower activity can be linked to the passage of comets. They are caused by the dust trails from the tails as they burn off. This appears as a shower several years later. Sometimes the trail of dust can take up to six years to become a shower.

Meteor Shower | Active | Rate (Hour) | Comet
--- | --- | --- | ---
Quadrantid (Bootes) | January 2-4 | 20-100 | 2003 EH1
Delta Leonids | Feb 15-Mar 10 | 2 | -
Pi Puppids | April 15-28 | 13-40 | 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup
Lyrids | April 21-22 | 8-15 | Thatcher 1861 I
Eta Aquarids | May 5-6 | 20-50 | 1P/Halley
Bootids | June 26-July 2 | -100 | 7P/Pons-Winnecke
Pegasid | July 7-13 | 3 | -
Phoenicid | July 10-16 | 3-10 | -
Southern Delta Aquarids | July 27-29 | 3 | 96P/Machholz
Alpha Capricornids | July 30 - Aug 1 | 3 | Unknown
Kappa Cygnids | August 3-25 | 3 | -
Perseid | August 11-13 | 40-200 | 109P/Swift-Tuttle
Northern Iota Aquarids | August 11-31 | 3 | -
Alpha Aurigids | Aug 25-Sept 05 | 10 | Kiess
Piscids | September | 3 | -
Draconids | October 6-10 | ? | 21P/Giacobini-Zinner
Epsilon Geminids | October 14-27 | 2 | -
Orionids | October 21-22 | 24 | 1P/Halley
Taurids | November 5-12 | 5-8 | 2P/Encke
Alpha Monocerotids | November 15-25 | 5-400 | -
Leonids | November 17-19 | 7500 | 55P/Tempel-Tuttle
Phoenicids | Nov 28-Dec 9 | 3-100 | -
Geminids | December 13-14 | 40-120 | Asteroid 3200 Phaethon
Ursids | December 22-23 | 10-15 | Tuttle
Coma Berenicids | Dec 12-Jan 23 | 5 | -
Hemisphere Location
Northern | Both | Southern
--- | --- | ---

Meteor showers are named after the constellations from which they originate.
The Geminids are the only showers known to be caused by an asteroid.
Meteoroids And Meteorites. Meteors normally burn up in the atmosphere. Each particle is called a meteoroid, If they survive burning up in the atmosphere and land on the earth they are called meteorites.
Fireball. This is an asteroid or meteoroid that burns up as it enters the earth's atmosphere. Meteorites are nickel and iron alloys that are difficult to make on earth. So scientist assume the presence of a meteor whenever they see this alloy.

Other Events and Structures
Some of these are predicted to exist, while others are descriptions of what is observed.

- Supernova. The death explosion of a massive star (Supergiant). It initially increases in brightness then gradually fades.
- Red Giant. The expansion of a star as it dies when the temperature near the core rises causing the size of the star to expand as the core shrinks. It eventually forms a white dwarf.
- White Dwarf. A low mass star that has exhausted most or all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very small size that is 1% of its original size but has almost the same mass as the original sun. It becomes a black dwarf when it cools.
- Brown Dwarf. A star whose mass is too low to have nuclear fusion.
- Black Hole. An object whose gravity is so strong that not even light can escape from it. It is formed from the death of a massive star.
- Dark Matter. The amount of mass whose existence is deduced but which has not been detected.
- Neutron Star. The imploded core of a massive star produced by a supernova explosion.
- Pulsar. A rotating neutron star which generates regular pulses of radiation.
- The Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper belt is an icy asteroid belt beyond Neptune. It is an area of the solar system between 30 and 50 AU from the sun.
- Õpik-Oort Cloud. An area outside the solar system that is believed to exist at 50,000 to 100,000 AU from the sun. It is believed to be the source of most comets.

Constellation

Ursa Major Constellation

A constellation is a major pattern of the stars in the sky which is made by connecting a line between the bright objects in the sky. There are 88 constellations. They are generally confined to either the Northern or Southern Hemisphere.
The Ecliptic : A band across the sky between the highest and lowest point of the Sun's apparent path around the galaxy.
The Zodiac : The twelve constellations called the zodiac appear about eight degrees north and south of the ecliptic. Because of the Earth's motion around the Sun, the Sun appears to pass in front of each constellation of the zodiac once per year.
Asterisms : Smaller star patterns within a constellation:

- Pleiades. They are also known as the seven sisters.
- Keystone. This is located in the Hercules constellation.
- Big dipper. It is part of Ursa Major.
- Little dipper. It is part of Ursa Minor.

Journey through your imagination | Imagine your trip through heaven at the Second Coming. What would you like to see? Do you think we will have a series of meteor showers like fireworks all the way home? After the earth is recreated, we will not have a sun or moon. What do you think will be in space? It is possible that there will be a sun and moon but that we cannot see them because the light from God is so much brighter.

Imagine | Have you ever thought about how infinite the universe is? Not just in terms of the size of space but in the number of possibilities. Everything that we can see, hear, touch and measure is based on one underlying concept, the electromagnetic spectrum. Suppose there are other building blocks, not based on electromagnetic waves? That is your limitation. We are handicapped by our current knowledge and what we think is possible. How can you possibly think outside the box when everything in your set of building blocks depends on electromagnetic waves. God has many objects in His tool box, look what He created with just one tool!

Constellation Families :

Constellation Families Star Chart
Locations are approximate

There are also constellation families. These are constellations that are related to each other:

Northern Hemisphere
- Ursa Major. Ten Families. (Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Draco, Canes Venatici, Bootes, Coma Berenice, Corona Borealis, Camelopardalis, Lynx, Leo Minor)
- Orion. Five Families. (Orion, Canis Major, Canis Minor, Monoceros, Lepus)
- Perseus. Nine Families. (Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Andromeda, Perseus, Pegasus, Cetus, Auriga, Lacerta, Triangulum). Cetus belongs to Perseus and heavenly waters and is in the ecliptic.
  Both Hemispheres
- Heavenly Waters. Nine Families. North: (Delphinus, Equuleus, Puppis, Pyxis, Columba). South: (Pisces Austrinus, Carina, Vela, Eridanus )
- Hercules. Nineteen Families. North: (Hercules, Saggita, Aquila, Lyra, Cygnus, Vulpecula, Hydra, Sextans, Crater, Corvus, Ophiuchus, Serpens, Scutum)
  South: (Centaurus, Lupus, Ara, Triangulum Australis, Crux, Corona Australis)
  Ecliptic
- Zodiac. Twelve Families. (Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpius, Saggitarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer). Cancer is also part of hercules. Ophiuchus and Cetus are also in the ecliptic.
  Southern Hemisphere
- The Bayer Group. Eleven Families. (Hydrus, Dorado, Volans, Apus, Pavo, Grus, Phoenix, Tucana, Indus, Chameleon, Musca)
- La Caille. Thirteen Families. (Norma, Circinus, Telescopium, Microscope, Sculptor, Fornax, Caelum, Horologium, Octans, Mensa, Reticulum, Pictor, Antlia.)

Constellation Groups

Hercules | Heavenly Waters | Perseus | Orion | The Bayer Group | La Caille | Ursa Major
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Northern Hemisphere
Hercules The hero | Lyra The Lyre | Perseus Medusa Slayer | Lynx | Camelopardalis The Giraffe | Ursa Minor Little Bear Little dipper | Draco The Dragon
Corvus The Crow | Cygnus The Swan | Auriga Chariot driver | Monoceros The Unicorn | Canes venatici Hunting Dogs
Sextans The Sextant | Corona Australis Southern Crown | Andromeda The Princess | Canis Major The Big Dog | Coma Berenices ♥ Berenice's Hair | Boötes Herdsman | Ursa Major The Big Bear The big dipper The Plow
Vulpecula The Fox | - | Cassiopeia The Queen | Canis Minor The little dog | Corona Borealis Northern crown | Leo Minor Little lion
Aquila

The Eagle Columba
The Dove Cepheus
The King Orion. Includes the Pleiades (M45) and the Orion nebula (M42 and M43). This is the region to watch for the Second Coming.
Belt. Three stars (Alnitak, Alnilam, Mintaka).
Sword. (Hatysa, M42, M43, NGC1981).
Crater
The Goblet Delphinus
The Dolphin Lacerta
The Lizard
Scutum
The Shield Pyxis
The Compass -
Sagitta
The Arrow Puppis
The Stern Triangulum
The Triangle
Hydra
Water Snake Equuleus
The Little Horse Pegasus
Winged Horse
Serpens
The Snake Cetus
The Whale Cetus
The Whale Orion
The Hunter
Ophiuchus
Serpent holder The Ecliptic Lupus
The Wolf
Gemini
The Twins Taurus
The Bull Aries
The Ram Pisces
The Fish Aquarius
Water Carrier Capricornus
The goat - fish The Zodiac
Cancer
The Crab Leo
The Lion Virgo
The Virgin Libra
The Scales Scorpius
Scorpion Sagittarius
The Archer
Southern Hemisphere
Lepus
♥ The Rabbit Pisces Austrinus
♥ Southern Fish Sculptor
The Sculptor Microscopium
The Microscope Reticulum
The net Norma
The Level Antlia
The Pump
Centaurus
♥ The Centaur Vela
The Sails Phoenix
The Phoenix Telescopium
The Telescope Mensa
Table Mountain Octans
The Octant Fornax
Furnace
Ara
♥ The Altar Carina
The Keel Grus
Crane Horologium
Pendulum Clock Pictor
Painter's easel Caelum
The Chisel Circinus
Compass
Crux
Southern cross Eridanus
♥ The River Hydrus
(The lesser water snake) Apus
Bird of Paradise Dorado
The sword fish Volans
The flying fish Tucana
The Toucan
Triangulum Australe
Southern Triangle Chamaeleon
Chameleon Pavo
The Peacock Indus
Indian Musca
The Fly
There are 61 constellations visible in the northern hemisphere, 48 were known by the ancient Greeks. In 150 A.D., the Greek scientist Ptolemy listed 1022 stars arranged into 48 constellations in a book named "Almagest".
Argo Navis (Ship of Jason and the Argonauts). Carina, Puppis, Pyxis and Vela were part of one constellation. Volans and Columba are also associated with the ship.
♥ These were known by the ancients. But Coma Berenices was a part of Leo and Columba was a part of Canis Major.
These and some of the southern constellations were named after 1600 A.D.
Did you know that God used the constellations and the seasons to illustrate the timetable of the Plan of Salvation?
The Keystone formation is in the Hercules constellation.

Fish And Birds

Creation Day 5 (Thursday) | On the fifth day God filled the ocean and the skies with living things. He created fish and birds and everything that flies.
Fish and Birds | The creatures of the fifth day fill the creation of the second day. Fish and birds were made to fill the sea and sky and both are filled with color.

Biosafety Hazard Level for Microorganisms
Level | Severity | Treatment | Example
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | No disease in the healthy | Bacillus subtilis
2 | Not serious | Available | Dengue, pox
3 | Lethal | Available | West nile, yellow fever, smallpox
4 | Lethal | Not available | Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, junin
Cold and Flu Geographic Activity
Level | Severity
--- | ---
1 | No report
2 | No Activity
3 | Sporadic
4 | Low Activity
5 | Regional (epidemic)
6 | Wide spread (pandemic)
Viruses and bacteria are the smallest of living things. But they are the source of many infectious diseases. In an epidemic, pandemic or an active season for a germ, the government issues a report on the geographic activity of the germ concerning human to human transmission. Over 40 trillion bacteria live in the human body!
An epidemic is a regional spread of disease.
A pandemic is a widespread or global spread of disease. The worst case is a level 3 or 4 pathogen, level 6 activity and level 5 severity.
Pandemic Mortality Severity Index
# | Severity | Example
--- | --- | ---
1 | Widespread, low infection rate, low mortality, no economic impact | 1968 flu
2 | Widespread, low infection rate, minimal mortality and economic disruptions | AIDS
3 | Spreads quickly, low mortality (2%) | 1918 flu
4 | Spreads quickly, medium mortality (40%) | 1347-1350 Black death
5 | Spreads quickly, high infection rate, high mortality (90%) | Smallpox in New World
The pandemic severity index measures disease, deaths, disruptions (economic impact).
A pathogen is an organism that causes disease.
Microbiologist. Studies microbes. Virologist. Studies viruses. Pathologist. Examines tissues for diseases
Microscope. Magnifies small objects
Did you know that God used the concept of quarantine to illustrate the Plan of Salvation. In 1865 Dr. Joseph Lister used the biblical principles and introduced handwashing and sterile techniques to the medical community. Death rates dropped from 40% to 3%

Biology | The study of living creatures.

Living things are fascinating. A living thing grows and reproduces. Living things also protect themselves, we will see how they do this and the clever way they search for food.
Germs and Microscopic Organisms
They are the smallest living creatures that cause diseases.

- Bacteria. A single cell organism. e.g. Meningitis, tetanus.
- Fungus. A simple plant that cannot manufacture its own food, so they get food from living or dead tissues. e.g. Athlete's foot.
- Protozoa. A single cell organism that loves moisture. e.g. Malaria
- Virus. A strand of RNA or DNA that has no cell wall that is technically not a living organism. e.g. Influenza, measles, chicken pox.
- Prion. e.g. Mad Cow Disease. A prion is not a living organism. It is smaller than a virus. It appears to be a protein that causes disease and is spread like the four classic germs. But it survives all the medical procedures used to decontaminate germs.

Some antibiotics work by damaging the cell wall. Since viruses do not have a cell wall antibiotics have no effect on them.
Genes, Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Genetic material or genes are made up of two strands of material called DNA. Every cell in the body, except the red blood cells, has a copy of the DNA in the nucleus. DNA, inherited from the mother, is also found in the mitochondria. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one strand of DNA is inherited from each parentand the last pair determine gender. DNA is made up of a sugar and phosphate backbone with one of four chemicals attached (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine). Adenine pairs with Thymine with two hydrogen bonds. Thymine and cytosine are paired with three hydrogen bonds. Three base pairs of genes make about twenty amino acids and a chain of amino acids make proteins.
Inheritance. Any physical traits that we have are governed by a pair of genes. We inherit one gene from each parent. Simple inheritance of a trait is represented as a combination of two similar letters, one from each parent. However one trait may be more likely to be expressed than another.

List of Human Chromosomes
Group | Markers | Function | Disease
--- | --- | --- | ---
A | 1 | 2968 | Connective tissue,Rh blood,collagen | Porphyria. Gaucher, Glaucoma, prostate cancer, Alzheimer's
2 HOX D | 2288 TCPX D2S1338 | Collagen type 3, 4 and 5 | ALS, harlequin ichthyosis, Ehlers-Danlos (EDS), Waardenberg
3 | 2032 D3S1358 | Eyes, ears, heart | Usher Syndrome, Von Hippel-Lindau, long QT syndrome
B | 4 | 1297 FGA | Wound healing, nerve | Wolf-Hirschhorn, FOP, Huntington's, Parkinsons, narcolepsy, achondroplasia, Ellis-van-Creveld
5 | 1643 D5s818 CSF1PO | Bones, muscle, face, collagen proteins | Cri-du-Chat, Treacher-Collins, Ehlers-Danlos, asthma, Cockayne, Crohn
C | 6 | 1963 | Collagen, blood vessels | Parkinsons, diabetes mellitus, hemochromatosis
7 HOX A | 1443 D7s820 | Collagen type 2, circulatory, blue eye color, bone | Williams syndrome, Cystic Fibrosis, Ehlers-Danlos, diabetes, obesity, Pendred syndrome
8 | 1127 D8S1179 | Immunity, thyroid, nerves, lipase | Werner syndrome, Burkitt lymphoma
9 | 1299 | Urea, collagen type 5, ABO blood | Citrullinemia, galactosemia, Ehlers-Danlos
10 | 1440 | Cell division, PTEN gene | Cowden syndrome, Gyrate atrophy, Refsum, Crohn
11 | 2093 THO1 | Hemoglobin | Ataxia Telangiectasia, Cancer (ATM), sickle cell
Growth | Russel Silver syndrome
12 HOX C | 1652 vWA | Bone, cartilage, collagen | Parkinson, phenylketonuria, excessive growth
D | 13 | 748 D13s317 | Cell division | Retinoblastoma, breast cancer (BRCA-2), Wilson, deaf
14 | 1098 | Lipid, thyroid | Niemann-Pick, Alzheimer
15 | 1122 | Fibrillin, blue-brown eye | Angelmans, Prader-Willi, Marfan, Tay-Sachs
E | 16 | 1098 D16s539 | ATP, COQ7, red hair | Crohn's, autism, polycystic kidney, alpha thalassemia, FMF
17 HOX B | 1576 | Myelin, cells, collagen type 1 | Neurofibromatosis (elephant man), Ehlers-Danlos, Cancer: ovarian, breast (BRCA-1), Marfan
18 | 766 D18s51 | Lipids | Edward's Syndrome, Tourette, Niemann-Pick
F | 19 | 1454 D19S433 | Absorbs iron, green-blue eye | Hemochromatosis, hypercholesterolemia
20 | 927 | Brain, prion, immune | CFJ, SCID (immunodeficiency)
G | 21 | 303 D21s11 | Biotin enzyme | Down's Syndrome, ALS, early onset alzheimers
22 | 288 | Supress tumor (CHEK2) | Neurofibromatosis, DiGeorge
23 Sex | 231 AMEL | Y. Male Gender | Jacobs (XYY), Klinefelter (XXY)
C | 1184 AMEL | X. Female Gender, iris color, red and green eye color | Triple-X (XXX, XXXX, XXXXX), Turner's (XO), Midas, Goltz, hemophilia, color blind, duchene muscular dystrophy
Total Chromosomes
Organism | Total | Organism | Total | Organism | Total
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Ant | 2 | Roundworm | 2 | Earthworm | 36
Rabbit | 44 | Kangaroo | 12 | Amoeba | 13
Human | 46 | Chimpanzee | 48 | Mouse | 40
Hare | 46 | Rhesus Monkey | 48 | Rat | 42
Cat, Tiger | 38 | Dog, wolf | 78 | Zebra | 44
Horse | 64 | Mule | 63 | Donkey | 62
Cow | 60 | Goat | 60 | Sheep | 54
Elephant | 56 | Mammoth | 58 | Pig | 38
Bee (Queen, Worker) | 32 | Bee (Drone) | 16
Mosquito | 6 | Fruit Fly | 8 | Gypsy Moth | 62
Dove | 16 | Chicken | 78 | Turkey | 82
Shrimp | 254 | Goldfish | 94 | Carp | 104
Crayfish | 200 | Frog | 36 | Starfish | 36
Tobacco | 48 | Algae | 148 | Rice | 24
Corn | 20 | Wheat | 42 | Oat | 42
Potato | 48 | Horsetail | 216 | Pea | 14
Cabbage | 18 | Mango | 40 | Bean | 22

- Dominant Gene. It takes only one inherited gene to be expressed. A dominant gene is not necessarily the trait that is the most common feature in a population. It is represented by a capital letter in a pair of genes. e.g. PP, Pp, pP
- Recessive Gene. The trait must be inherited from both parents to be expressed. It is represented by a lower case letter in a pair of genes. e.g. pp, Pp, pP

Chromosome Classification. Chromosomes are numbered 1 to 22 from longest to shortest. They are also arranged in seven groups based on size and centromere location.
Centromere. Each strand of a chromosome pair is joined or constricted at one location creating two arms. The short arm is called "p" and the longer "q arm".
Satellite. A small segment separated by a secondary constriction.

- Median (Metacentric). In the middle of the chromosome with two equal arms.
- Submedian (Submetacentric). Between the middle and one end creating two unequal arms.
- Acrocentric. Centromere close to one end.
- Telocentric. At one end.

Chromosome Classification
Group | Chromosomes | Centromere | Size
--- | --- | --- | ---
A | 1-3 | Median | Largest
#2 has two fused genes and 2 centromeres
B | 4-5 | Submedian | Large
C | 6-12, X | Submedian | Medium
D | 13-15* | Acrocentric | Medium
E | 16-18 | Median, Submedian | Short
F | 19-20 | Median | Short
G | 21-22*, Y | Acrocentric | Very Short
* Short arms of 13, 14, 15, 21, 22 have satellites

Homeobox Genes (HOX). These are responsible for the body plan. There are four chomosomes in humans with this gene cluster.

Chromosome Banding. Chromosomes with the same size and centromere location are further identified by the banding pattern of light and dark regions they make with certain stains. Each chromosome has a unique banding pattern that is like a bar code.

Chromosome Banding Techniques
Type | Stain | Analysis
--- | --- | ---
Q | Quinacrine | Chromosomes, centromeres
G | Giemsa | Structural abnormalities
C | Giemsa | Centromere, satellites
R | Heat, Giemsa | Deletions, translocations
R | Acridine Orange | Deletions, translocations
T | Giemsa or acridine orange | Telomeric banding
NOR | Silver nitrate | Acrocentric satellites
DAPI/DA | Distamycin A | Y autosome translocations, breaks, small chromosomes

Mutation. An unrepaired error in DNA is a mutation. Genetic disorders or mutations occur when there are missing, excess or malfunctioning genes. These result in a change in the manufacture of a protein.
Anomalies occur when only one of the pair is inherited (monosomy) or three copies are inherited (trisomy) or substitutions or deletions in the chromasome occurs.

- Chromosome Deletion. A piece of the chromosome is missing.
- Inversion. The center of the DNA breaks off, rotates and is reinserted upside down.
- Translocations. Chromosomes switch places on different genes.
- Monosomy. Only one copy is present.
- Uniparental Disomy. Both copies come from one parent.
- Trisomy. An extra chromosome. e.g. Down's syndrome is trisomy of chromosome 21

The number of chromosomes is not related to the similarity, size, complexity or intelligence of the organism.

Forensic DNA Analysis. DNA is used to uniquely identify a person or to determine genetic relationships. There are several DNA tests.

- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). The first nuclear DNA test. A restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into specific fragments which are separated by gel electrophoresis.

  Common External Features
  Feature | Dominant | Recessive
  --- | --- | ---
  Ear lobes | Free (70-90%) | Attached (25%)
  Cheek dimple | Present | Absent
  Chin shape | Cleft | Absent
  Tongue rolling | Roll in a "U" (65-81%) | Cannot roll
  Front teeth | Gap (5%) | No gap
  PTC sensitivity | Taste (70%) | Cannot taste
  Blood type | A-40%, B-11%, AB-4% | O (45%)
  Rh factor | Positive (85%) | Negative (15%)
  Hair line | Widow's peak | Straight
  Hair whorl | Clockwise | Counter (6%)
  White forelock | Absent | Present
  Hair color | Not red | Red (2-6%)
  Eye color | Brown /other | Blue (8%)
  Freckles | Present | Absent
  Thumb | Curved (Hitch hiker) (25-36%) | Straight thumb (64-75%)
  Little finger | Bent | Straight
  Mid-digital hair | Hair on knuckles | No hair
  Index finger Vs Ring finger | Shorter in males | Longer in males
  Hand clasp | Left thumb on top (55%) | Right on top (44%)
  Big toe length | Shorter (10%) | Longer, equal
  Dominant hand | Right (70-90%) | Left handed
  Note that the dominant gene is not necessarily more prevalent in the population

- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Allows small samples of nuclear DNA to be copied to create millions of exact copies.
- Low Copy Number DNA Analysis (LCNA). It is used when very small samples remain, even 15-20 cells. These are either old, degraded samples or DNA left by touch or sweat.
- Short Tandem Repeat (STR). Specific regions in nuclear DNA are examined.
  The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a national DNA data bank that uses 13 STR regions to code in their forensic database.
- Mitochondrial DNA Analysis (mtDNA). Old biological fragments such as hair, bones and teeth lack nuclear DNA and cannot be analyzed by the previous three tests. But DNA contributed by the mother is found in the mitochondrion.
- Y-Chromasome Analysis. It is used to trace biological relationships among males because the Y chromasome is contributed by the father.

DNA Database. Different systems choose a set of DNA markers to identify humans. Each lab hopes theirs will be the global standard. As a result several majar standards are in existance.

- CODIS (Combined DNA Index System). It is the database used in the United States. It has 13 markers plus the sex marker.

  CSF1PO, TPOX, D5S818, D7S820, D13S317,
  FGA, TH01, VWA, D3S1358, D8S1179, D16S539, D18S51, D21S11 and AMEL

- Second Generation Multiplex Plus (SGM and SGM+). It is used in the United Kingdom. It uses 10 markers plus the sex marker AMEL. The first 8 are also used by CODIS.

  FGA, TH01, VWA, D3S1358, D8S1179, D16S539, D18S51, D21S11, D2S1338, D19S433 and AMEL

- Paternity Testing. It uses 16 markers and sometimes 24 markers if mutation is suspected. It uses all the markers used by SGM+ and CODIS.

Cells And Cloning
DNA is found in two places in the cell. In the nuclear DNA of the nucleus and the mitochondrial DNA in the mitochondria outside in the cell body. Regular cells have all the genetic material, but the reproductive cells contain one half. When the egg combines with the sperm, each contributes one half of the nuclear genetic material. Then mitosis (cell division) occurs after this reproductive cell has all the DNA. So, the child has half the nuclear DNA from the mother and father and 100% of the mitochondrial DNA of the mother.

Female Egg | Male Sperm
--- | ---
Nuclear DNA Mitochondrial DNA | Nuclear DNA Mitochondrial DNA
Baby Embryo
Cloning removes the material from the nucleus of the embryo of one animal and places it in the egg of another animal.
Recombinant DNA technology involves switching sections of the gene of an animal with the genes of another animal or plant.

Cloning is not the creation of life. It is the artificial stimulation of mitosis after recombining the nucleus of one animal into the cell body of the female egg. So the clone has the mitochondrial DNA of the female (e.g. cow) with 100% of the nuclear DNA of the other animal (e.g. pig).
So far cloning does not take half the genes from the nucleus of one animal and combine it with half of the nuclear DNA of another species of animal. The cloning technique takes a normal cell which has all the genetic material and substitutes the nuclear DNA of one animal with the nuclear DNA of another, then cell division is artificially stimulated.
Transgenic Animals. A transgenic animal has foreign genes inserted into its DNA. Cloning is just one extreme form of creating transgenic animals. There are two basic ways of injecting or substituting new genes.

1. Embryonic Stem Cell. This is the DNA taken from a cell after the egg and sperm have fused.
   » Pronucleus Method. This also uses embryonic stem cells. After fertilization, it intercepts and substitutes the nucleus of the sperm before it joins the nucleus of the egg.
2. Other Cells. These use cells from other parts of the body, not embryos.

Survival
To survive, animals need to do several things:

1. Breathe
2. Eat
3. Reproduce. Have children to continue the species.
4. Protect themselves from enemies.
5. Know God. This gives eternal life. The others give temporary life.

Animals use two basic mechanisms to accomplish these:

1. Display. A show of bright colors can be used to warn of danger or to attract a female.
2. Trick. Animals use disguises and camouflage to blend into the surroundings so that they can hide from their enemies or to lure food.

Creation. Did you know that over 4000 years ago Jacob described a process that models the DNA double helix and the DNA replication process? The Spotted And Striped Stick (Genesis 30: 37-41). He took a stick and carved spots and stripes in it, then set it in a trough of water where the animals of a single color came to drink and mate. When they looked at the stick as they mated their children looked like the stick with spots and stripes and circular stripe pattern (ringstraked). The Spotted And Striped DNA. The DNA double helix looks like a stick with spots and stripes. It even has an -OH molecule at each end. Since it carries the genetic desription of our outer appearance, when our parents mate we will look like the instructions carved in the DNA. Another "silly and unscientific" Bible story described DNA process 4000 years before Watson and Crick discovered it.

Camouflage
Camouflage is the art of blending into the surroundings so that you cannot be seen. It is based on the fact that the eye tends to look for patterns and to fill in the gaps.
The four methods used to blend into the surrounding environment are:

1. Similarity. Use the same pattern, color, shape or size.
   The pink flower mantis looks like the orchid that it hides inside as it waits for food.
   Leaf bugs look like leaves.
   Most camouflage mimic only one pattern but Cuttlefish are the best. They mimic color, pattern, texture and shape of any environment and can even give a light show by changing color in rhythmic pattern like a neon sign.
2. Proximity. Align yourself in the same direction as the surroundings.
   Stick bugs look like a branch. They attach themselves to the tree at an angle like a branch.
   Some sea horses align themselves upright to look like the seaweed.
3. Continuity. Use the same pattern as the surroundings. Or use the same pattern to appear larger so that no individual stands out.
   The striped pattern of the zebra makes it impossible to see only one.
4. Closure. The eye will fill in missing details. Therefore, the object being hidden does not have to look exactly like the surroundings.

| Camouflage | Evolution | Creation
Sea dragon Sea dragon Stick bug 1 Stick bug 2 Leaf bug Bush Cricket Brimstone butterfly | Piltdown man Nebraska man Lucy Gypsy moth Monster mutation Too much life Clean world Carbon dating Neanderthal Biogenesis Missing link | Eye Body symmetry Turbidity current Pleochroic halo Arizona tracks Speed of Light Biological clock Baby DNA Designer
Colonies
Bee and Ant
Display
Peacocks
Camouflage is the ability to blend into the surrounding environment by changing colors or markings and acting like the background.
Teacher and Professor. Experts who share knowledge by teaching others about a particular subject

Insects
85% of all living creatures on earth are insects from over one million species. Insects have six legs, hard outer shell (exoskeleton) and a three part segmented body (head, thorax and abdomen). Arachnids have eight legs and two body parts. They include spiders, scorpions and mites in about 73,000 species.
Honey Bee

Bees are social creatures that live in hives ruled by a queen. There are three different kinds of bees in a hive who divide the work by them:
| Queen. The only bee who can have children. A queen develops when the larvae is fed royal jelly.
| Worker Bee. Females who do not have children. They build the hive, gather nectar, water and pollen and care for the colony. They make the honey, feed the queen and the babies, clean the hive and defend the colony.
| Drone. Male bees who fertilize the queen
Play a Creation Game
Apiology. Study of bees Entomology. Study of insects, arachnids Biologist. Studies living things Zoologist. Studies animals Ornithologist. Studies birds

When they find a source of food, worker bees, perform one of two different kinds of dances when they return to the hive.

1. Circular dance. Tells the location of food sources less than about one hundred yards away. (91 meters)
2. Figure eight dance. Tells the location of food sources over one hundred yards and up to several miles away.

Communication. Some bees use pheromones, sound and dance to communicate. The bees have two dances to indicate the location of food. A circle dance indicates food without any reference to distance. When the food is far away (over 300 feet) the bees do a "figure eight" dance. In the dance, they waggle their bodies to tell the distance and direction of the food in relation to the sun. As the sun changes its location, the information in the dance must change. This indicates intelligence and mathematical ability.

1. Angle of the dance. They use the sun as a compass in relation to the vertical wall of the hive to show the angle of the food in relation to the sun.
   - Upward. The food is in the direction of the sun.
   - Downward. The direction opposite the sun.
   - Other angles. The direction away from the sun.
2. Length of the dance. The distance from the hive.
3. Number of "waggles". The distance from the hive.
4. "Vigor" of the dance. How delicious the food is.
5. Scent. Gives an idea of the source of the food.

Other experiments show that if the information seems to be impossible, then the hive will not go after the food.

Ants
Ants also live in social colonies like bees but with millions of members, with the same division of work structure by three types of ants.

- Males. The males have one pair of wings and do not work. Each spring, the queen lays eggs that develop into winged males and winged fertile females. The kings and queens swarm out of the colony and mate in the air. Then the males die. They live about eight weeks while the queens live ten to thirty years.

  | Queen. Winged female ants. The only ant who can have children
  | Workers. Sterile, wingless females. They collect the food, feed the nest and larvae, build and clean the nest.
  Soldiers. Large sterile females who defend the colony, raid other colonies and capture slaves
  | Drone. Winged male ants who fertilize the queen and die
  Myrmecology. The study of ants. Go to the ant, you lazy bum. Consider her ways, and be wise" Proverbs 6: 6

- Queen. Once the queen mates in flight with several males she loses her two pairs of wings and goes to start a new colony. After mating she searches for a place to dig the founding nest which is a vertical tunnel 2 to 5 inches deep (5-13 cm). She seals herself off in the nest to lay eggs and to rear the first brood of workers. After this her only work is to lay eggs. When she mates she collects and saves a bag of sperm that lasts her whole life. She uses this sperm to control the gender and type of ant (male, female or queen). She lays thousands of eggs, some are fertilized, some are not.
  - Male. The unfertilized eggs will hatch into males.
  - Sterile Female Workers. The fertilized eggs will hatch into females but the sex organs are underdeveloped. The genes of the father determines the size of the worker ant.
  - Fertile Queen. When the larva of a fertilized egg is fed enough food, hormone levels increase and cause sex organ development.
- Workers. Sterile females who become regular workers or the larger soldiers. Work is distributed by the size and age of the ant. Workers feed and groom the queen and larvae, build tunnels, and protect the colony.
  » Minims. Tiny worker ants who are too small to do any work but they hitchhike on the back of the loads and help to warn against airborne attacks.
  » Younger Workers. They take care of the larvae, pupae and the queen.
  » Middle Aged. They take care of the nest, repair, dig tunnels, store seed and transport food. Later they transport waste and guard the nest.
  » Old Ants. The most dangerous job. They leave the nest and forage for food.
  » Soldiers. They grow larger, have big heads and jaws to defend the colony.
  » Farmers. Among the different ant species are many types of behaviors performed by these workers. Many ants are farmers who raise plants and animals.
  - Aphids ("Ant Cows"). Several species of ant domesticate a kind of insect called an aphid. These aphids usually suck more juice out of a plant than they need and it is secreted out of their backs. The ants milk this delicious nectar. In return the ant protects the aphids from predators and even care for their young. Other insects also make this precious honeydew and the ants also keep these to farm. e.g. scale insects and the larvae of the corbicular butterfly.
  - Mushroom Farmers. Leaf cutter ants cut leaves to make mulch which they take underground and fertilize with their feces. Then they grow a fungus in this compost heap and even weed the garden to remove unwanted plants.
  - Tree Farms. Other species of ants collect and grow tiny seeds and plant them underground or above ground. They gather tiny seeds from the fields and plant them underground. When the seeds sprout, they bite off the green sprouts and dry the seeds in the sun. The seeds are stored in underground chambers.

Species | Description | Ant Chamber
--- | --- | ---
Carpenter Ants | They construct nests in wooden structures. |
- |  | -
- | Larvae
Eggs | -
- |
Food
- | Dump
Food | -
- | Dump
Farm | -
- | Winged ants
Queen
Honey Pot Ants | During the rainy season, storage ants fill their abdomens to the size of grapes with nectar and hang from the ceiling until there is famine. When the food gets low the colony gets nectar from them. They sometimes capture hostages from other colonies and raid a colony to kill the queen and enslave the workers.
Leaf Cutter Ants | They are gardeners who gather leaves, grind them to smaller pieces, fertilize them with their feces and then grow a fungus which they use for food. When the queen goes to create a new colony she carries a sample of this fungus with her.
Harvester Ants | They collect, store, and eat seeds. Sometimes they travel up to forty miles away from their nest in search of food.
Army Ants | Migratory hunters that feed on other creatures. They travel up to 20 meters per hour and set up a temporary camp every night and only stay in one location for 2 to 3 weeks when it is time to lay eggs. The queen lays at least 30,000 eggs in one day. They can interlock their legs to form bridges across rivers and roll up into a ball to float in a flood.
Polyergus Samurai | Ants of the Polyergus samurai species have sharp, sickle-shaped mandibles which are good for fighting but useless for domestic work.. They do no work except to raid other nests and force the slaves to work. Between July to September the worker ants raid the nests of formica japonica species and seize the larvae and pupae of the raided nest. When they grow to adults they become slaves.

Communication. Ants hear with their knees by picking up vibrations. Ants touch their antennae to communicate, rock back and forth so that their mandibles strike the nest with beats up to seven thumps per 50 millisecond (drumming), by making high pitched squeaks by rubbing body parts (stridulation) or use pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals that are used to alert other ants of danger, mark trails, identify each other, enlist the help of other ants and scare off enemies.
Ants are the most numerous types of creatures. They have a combined weight greater than the combined weight of all humans.
Ants can carry 10 to 20 times their body weight and they work in teams to move heavy objects.
The largest ant colony is 3,600 miles long (5890 Km), stretching from the Italian Riviera to northwest Spain. It consists of billions of Argentine ants living in millions of nests that cooperate with each other.

Birds
There are about seven to eight thousand species of birds. Fish and birds were created on the same day and are the most colorful of the living creatures that God created.
Mccaw or Parrot. These birds are interesting because of their beautiful colors and because they can imitate human speech. They mate for life and are often seen in pairs.
Humming Bird Facts. They are the smallest birds. Wings flap at 100 beats per second and they can fly backwards.
Indigo Bunting. The male bird has a beautiful indigo blue color, while the female is brown. They migrate south and travel in flocks at night, navigating by the stars.
Bird Song. Birds sing, and the sound is similar to speech in humans.

Fish
God created some very incredible fish and other creatures that live in the sea. Let us take a look.

Creature | Description | Fish Farms
--- | --- | ---
Anableps | He has an interesting eye. The top half can see in the air and the bottom half sees in the water. | Modern technology allows us to grow fish on farms. But the living conditions are not what our Creator intended for His creatures and the results are probably not healthy. Farmed fish are crowded into pens and swim in their own waste. It is like living in a toilet. The waste from a normal farm is equal to the sewage from a city of 7,500 people - this contaminates the water and destroys other fish habitats. Toxins are ten times higher in PCBs. Diseases spread faster because of crowded conditions and the sewage water they live in. Therefore farmed fish receive antibiotics in their food and by injections. But disease still spreads to the wild fish and the excessive use of antibiotics creates super bugs that we have no methods of killing. Since their normal color is grey, farmed fish are dyed pink so that they look like wild fish. Farmers kill hundreds of seals and sea lions and other fish to protect the farmed fish. Three pounds of mackerel, sardines and other fish feed one pound of salmon. 2,332,000 tons of fish are taken from the sea to produce 737,000 tons of salmon in 1997. Source:
Archer fish | Captures insects by shooting water out of the air like a bullet.
Angler fish | He goes fishing! In front of his mouth hangs an appendage that attracts other fish. Also, the male does not eat. He attaches himself to a female and their blood streams merge! Now how could these have evolved? Not!
Decoy fish | He also goes fishing by attracting other fishes. One of the fins looks like a tiny fish while the rest of the body is camouflaged.
Sea horse | The male carries the eggs and gives birth
Whales and dolphins | Mammals that breathe air but live in the sea

Imagine | Try to invent a new animal. What colors will it have? Will it be spotted or striped? Imagine a patchwork animal! Will it fly, hop, swim or do all of these? Where does it live? Does it only like to eat blue things? Can it talk like a parrot? Give it a name. God asked Adam to name the animals. Maybe He will make this animal just for you and you will see it in heaven. |

Animals And Man - The Incredible Human Body

Creation Day 6 (Friday) | On the sixth day God created the male and female animals on the land. In the evening he created the last two living things. He created Adam and Eve.
Animals and Man | Magnetic elements are in the sixth period. God created marriage to complete the attraction between male and female.

Male and Female Impossibility | Sexual reproduction could not have developed over millions of years because the male and female must develop simultaneously in the same location in less than fifty years for humans and in a week for fruit flies. This impossible coincidence must be repeated in every species. Millions of them.

Adam and Eve
The first two humans were Adam and Eve. They are the parents of all the human family. Therefore they must have had the genes that are in all the different racial groups. What do you think they looked like?
Humans and all biological systems reproduce in two ways:

1. Asexual Reproduction. This is usually done only by simple single celled creatures. The cell usually eats and grows in size then it divides to form two new creatures from the old one.
   This apparently does not work well with complex creatures. I tried doubling in size so that I could split in two and reproduce. I only got fatter.
2. Sexual Reproduction. Requires two creatures, a male and female. This is a problem for evolutionists. Usually, they will throw in millions of years for events to happen. Unfortunately, the reproductive system is very complex and the two creatures have totally different parts, and half the genetic material they need. In addition, they only have a short period in their life span for these systems to develop and the compatible design must be transmitted to the other parent who must be developing at the same time.
   Evolution cannot support separate species communicating design specifications to each other therefore it is a mystery how the two different creatures emerge within thirty years with chemical and physical attributes that complemented each other.
   Because evolution depends on an offspring surviving they needed an answer to the question of reproduction. To answer this question they developed a theory called Monster Mutation.

Scientific Observation | The difference in size of a liger and a tigon shows that in one generation a medium sized animal can produce a giant and a dwarf. So, could a dinosaur sized creature and a lizard be produced in the same year from a large alligator? This is observable evidence that the evolutionary charts that rely on differences in size as proof of long periods of growth are a fallacy.

Hybrid Animals
God created us so that we cannot have children with other species. But humans have tried to cross-breed related species. But even animals that are closely related have a few problems. Hybrid breeds are almost always sterile.
Mule. The child of a female horse and a male donkey.
Hinny. The child of a male horse and a female donkey.
Tigon. The child of a female lion and a male tiger that is usually a dwarf that is much smaller than the parents.
Liger. The child of a male lion and a female tiger that is usually a giant. It is the largest cat in the world. It has stripes and spots and an orange - gold color. They can stand up to twelve feet tall and weigh as much as 1000 pounds. (3.7 meters and 454 kg).
The Lion and the Lamb. Scientists claim that carnivorous animals must eat meat to survive. They claim that this is why they have evolved sharp incisor teeth. But "Little Tyke" is a female vegetarian lion who refused to eat meat. She ate cooked grain, raw eggs and milk. The bible says that the lion will live with the lamb and it will eat straw like an ox.

Evolution: Monster Mutation.

Even if a fish could possibly give birth to a frog. It is impossible for a male and female to emerge. That would require two impossible events using processes that contradict modern observations and scientific knowledge.

This is the fairy tale that says that one day a fish laid one egg and a male and female frog came out! This is contrary to what we observe and know about genetics.

1. Current biological observations show that a single egg can only produce identical babies of the same gender.
2. A creature can only produce their own species.

The theory recognizes that small mutations will not create the large biological changes that cause evolution. This is because small mutations usually go back to their original form within two generations. The famous gypsy moth experiments failed because the moths would change back after two generations. Biological systems also have many complicated parts that must all be working at the same time or they will be useless.
Therefore, the theory says that once every 50,000 years an egg has so many huge mutations that it cannot go back to an original form.
Therefore, a fish can give birth to a frog!
However, realizing that they have to account for sexual reproduction, they further went on to say that when the new creature emerged, a male and female must emerge from the single egg.
That does not sound like a scientific theory. It is a fairy tale!
And this miraculous fairy tale continues further because every one of the two to thirteen million species that we know, must have gone through this same miraculous process that is full of coincidences.
Imagine, thirteen million impossible events. In fact, twenty six million impossible events if you count the male and female.
Monster Mutation Mathematics. Apparently, evolutionists cannot do basic arithmetic either because if a new creature emerged every 50,000 years then it would take 75 billion years to develop the one and a half million species that we have named so far. And 650 billion years to develop the thirteen million estimated species.
What is wrong with these figures? The big bang that started evolution was calculated to have occurred 6 to 13 billion years ago and life emerged 545 million years ago!
Instead, for the time in which life is supposed to have emerged, the calculations support one specie emerging every 540 years for the 1½ million we know exist. And, forty two years for the thirteen million we estimate to exist.
Some people claim that there are 100 million species, thirteen million is just the conservative upper limit. If there are 100 million then they must have evolved every 5½ years.
I have not seen any of these exotic new creatures, have you? My toe nail does not grow that fast.

The Human Body
God says that we are "wonderfully made". He made several advanced systems to take care of our bodies while we are on earth. These systems manage the body like any major city government. There is a defence or military system, transportation, communications, education, medical, reproduction, energy, structural engineering, waste management and food management.

System | The Human Body | Purpose | Structures
--- | --- | --- | ---
Spiritual |  | To learn about God and to worship Him | Brain, mouth, voice box, eyes, ears and sensory system
Skeletal | Supports body, protects organs, movement, produces blood cells and stores minerals. | Bones, skull, vertebrae, ribs, teeth, tendon, ligament, marrow
Muscular | Movement. They are attached to the skeletal system by the ligaments. | Biceps, triceps, deltoid, gluteus maximus
Digestive | Processes food and changes it to energy for the body. It sends solid and liquid waste to be eliminated | Teeth, mouth, tongue, stomach, gall bladder, liver, small intestine, rectum, anus, saliva, hydrochloric acid, bile
Urinary | Removes waste products and excess fluids and regulates the volume of fluids | Kidney, colon, urinary bladder, large intestine, ureter
Reproductive | Produce children | Uterus, testes, eggs, sperm, mammary glands
Respiratory | Processes oxygen (O2) and exhales carbon dioxide (CO2) | Nose, trachea, lungs, alveoli, bronchi, pleura, hemoglobin, vagus nerve, pulmonary arteries and veins
Circulatory | Transmits blood, oxygen, food and waste to the organs | Heart, artery, vein, blood
Immune | Fights infections and foreign substances | Skin, stomach acids, white blood cells, bone marrow, spleen
Lymphatic | lymph nodes, lymph, tonsils, thymus, MALT, Peyer's patches
Sensory or Nervous | Control motion. Feelings, senses as electrical impulses to the brain. The senses collect signals from the outside, converts them to electrical signals and sends them to the brain for interpretation | Brain, spinal cord, eye, ear, tongue, nose and skin
Endocrine | A system of chemical messages from organs that secrete hormones to control body functions such as growth and development, puberty, reproduction, energy levels, response to stress and injury and internal balance | Glands. Pituitary, adrenal, thymus, hypothalmus, thyroid, parathyroid, pineal, testes, ovaries, pancreas, liver
Better Than Super Man. The physical description of God is very different. For God, it is the spiritual component that is dominant. Physically, He appears as one who is on fire from head to toe. There is a stream of living water flowing from Him. This combination of water and light causes a rainbow and a cloud to surround Him. His structure can change and pass through solid physical objects. He can move faster than light. He does not eat or sleep. His breath gives life to physical beings. He reproduces by speaking electromagnetic waves. How awesome is our God!
Nurse. Cares for patients. | Physician (Doctor). Manages human health, treats disease
Influenza. Viral infection. | Cancer. Abnormal growth of any cell that starves healthy cells.
Thermometer. Measures temperature | Endoscope. Instrument for viewing the interior of hollow organs

Skeletal System
The adult body has 206 bones and 32 teeth and about 650 muscles. A baby has 300 bones. Some animals, like bugs, have their skeletons on the outside (exoskeletons). While others have their skeleton on the inside (endoskeleton). The bones have several functions.

- Protect the internal organs.
- Manufacture red blood cells and some white blood cells.
- Support the organs and muscles.
- Store calcium, phosphorus and other minerals.
- Movement

| # | Part | Bones | Organs and muscles
1 | Head | Axial Skeleton (80 bones) | Skull, jaw (mandible, 2 maxilla), Ear (malleus, incus, stapes), hyoid, 7 cervical vertebrae, 32 teeth | Brain, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, tongue
2 | Spine | 33 bones: vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx | Nerves
3 | Chest | 24 Ribs (12 pairs), sternum, 12 thoracic vertebrae | Trachea, bronchi, heart, lungs, diaphragm, intercostal muscles, aesophagus
3a | Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones) | Shoulder Girdle (4 Bones) | Clavicle, scapular
4 | Hip | Pelvic Girdle (2 Bones) | Pelvis (iliac, pubic) Spine (Vertebrae). » 5 lumbar, » 5 fused sacral » 4 fused coccyx | Digestive system, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, colon, liver, pancreas, kidneys, bladder, anus
Reproductive system. Uterus, vagina, eggs, fallopian tubes, penis, scrotum, prostate gland, sperm, testicles
5 | Arms | Upper Extremities (60 bones) | Humerus, radius, ulna | Deltoid, biceps, triceps
6 | Hands | 27 bones. Carpals, metacarpals, phalanges (fingers) | 19 muscles move the wrist and fingers
7 | Legs | Lower Extremities (60 bones) | Femur, patella (knee), tibia, fibula | Gluteus Maximus, quadricep, sartorius, biceps, gastrocnemius
8 | Feet | 26 bones. Tarsals (ankle), Calcaneus (heel), metatarsals, phalanges (toes) | Achilles tendon
The bone marrow produces 2.6 million red blood cells every second. The great white shark has 3000 teeth! It loses over three million teeth during its life. You have only 28 to 32. The second cervical vertebra is named the axis. It allows the head to turn.
Podiatrist. Treats the feet. | Orthopedics. Treats bone injury. | Dentist. Treats the teeth and gums.
Fracture. Broken bone | Arthritis. Fusion of bones | Osteoporosis. Loss of calcium, brittle bone
Crutch. Assists walking | Brace. Immobilizes weak bone | Radioscope. Views objects using X-rays

Muscular System

| # | Part | Muscles | Body Organs and muscles
1 | Skeletal (Voluntary) | Types of Muscles | Voluntary muscles for movement. Controlled by the somatic nervous system |
Skeletal | Smooth | Cardiac
--- | --- | ---
2 | Smooth (Visceral) | The muscles of the internal organs are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
3 | Cardiac (Heart) | Muscles of the heart. They are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
Joints are the point where two or more bones meet | Types of Muscles
1a | Muscle | Tissues of the Musculo-skeletal System | The contraction or relaxation moves the bones to which it is attached. |
1b | Tendon | Attaches muscle to bone. Achilles tendon is located in the heel.
1c | Ligament | Attaches bone to bone
2 | Bone | The moveable support structure
Front View | Back View | 3 | Cartilage | Protective gel lining the joint | The Joint
Synovial Fluid. Lubricating fluid between the joints. An injured joint may respond to the weather because the pressure changes in the atmosphere may cause pressure changes in this fluid.
Front View | Body. Trapezius, deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, rectus abdominis. Arms. Triceps, biceps, brachialis. Legs. Gracilis, adductor longus, iliopsoas, pectineus, gluteus medius. Sartorius, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis. Lower Leg. Gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior, peroneus longus
Back View | Body. Trapezius, deltoid, teres minor, teres major, external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, latissimus dorsi, Gluteus Maximus. Leg. Gracilis, adductor magnus, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris. Lower Leg. Gastrocnemius Arm. Triceps brachii, anconeus, flexor carpi, extensor carpi.
There are about 650 muscles in the human body. Nineteen muscles move the wrist and fingers.
Surgeon. Opens the body to treat injury and diseases | Dermatologist. Treats skin diseases.
Muscular Dystrophy. Loss of muscle tissue and mobility | Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP). Muscle turns to bone

Designer | The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage that covers the trachea when we swallow and stops food from entering the lungs. If evolution occurred, then our ancestors would have choked on their food for several thousand years until they realized that they should evolve a flap to protect the wind pipe. It sounds ridiculous. A baby would have choked to death. Study any system in the body and you will realize that it would not function if it had to wait millions of years for the necessary part to evolve.

The Respiratory System

| # | Organs | Structure | Function
1 | Lungs | The right side has three lobes and the left has two. They have a thin lining, the size of a tennis court, which absorbs oxygen and transfers it to the hemoglobin of the blood. High levels of carbon dioxide make the blood more acidic. This triggers the vagus nerve which causes us to increase respiration and exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide
2 | Heart | Receives oxygen from the lungs and sends carbon dioxide to the lungs through the pulmonary vein and artery
3 | Diaphragm | Muscle moves up and down so that the lungs can contract and expand and force air in or out
4 | Trachea | Wind pipe. Air flows from the nose to the lungs
5 | Ribs | 12 ribs attached to the spinal column in the back and the sternum in the front. They protect the organs in the chest
5a | 7 true ribs | They are attached directly to the sternum
5b | 3 false ribs | They are attached directly to the cartilage of the last true rib
Right Lung | Left Lung | 5c | 2 floating ribs | They are only attached in the back
Breathing | 5d | Cartilage | They attach the ribs to the sternum
Inhale. A vacuum is created when the diaphragm and the rib cage contract and air rushes in. The diaphragm flattens and the ribs spread and are raised. Exhale. When the rib muscles and the diaphragm relaxes air is forced out. | 6 | Sternum | The true ribs are attached here in the front
7 | Spine | All the ribs are attached in the back
8 | Clavicle | Collar bone
9 | Pleura | Lining between the ribs and lungs that allows the lungs to slide along the rib cage without an injury
Paramedic. Provides first emergency services. | Respiratory Therapist. Gives breathing treatments.
Asthma. Breathing impairment. | Cystic Fibrosis. Mutation creates thick mucus in the lungs
The First Surgery. The Bible says that God made Adam fall asleep, then He took a rib and created Eve. Now men and women have an equal number of ribs. So, where did the ribs come from and why did God use the rib? Here is a possible answer. 13 Pairs of Ribs. Most people have twelve ribs. A few have eleven or thirteen. Adam could have had thirteen pairs in the beginning. If Eve was made from one pair of ribs, then God would use the number twelve to represent the number of people, who are within the body of one man, who would be the foundation of a race of people. Floating Ribs. He could have used a part of the floating ribs. Stem Cells. The bone marrow has cells called stem cells. These can grow into any type of cell. However, the power of God is so great that he might have used other processes to create her.
Did you know that the structure of the rib cage and chest cavity illustrates the Plan of Salvation? God demonstrates how he will make peace with the world through twelve nations.

Circulatory System

The Heart | Structure
--- | ---
| A1 | Heart | Atrium | Chambers at the top of the heart
A2 | Ventricle | Chambers at the bottom of the heart
B1 | Veins | Takes blood without oxygen to the heart
B2 | Arteries | Takes blood with oxygen from the heart to the body
B3 | Pulmonary | Carries blood between the heart and the lung
C | Valves | Stops blood from flowing back into the chambers
D | Capillaries | Tiny vessels that connect the arteries and veins
1 | Red Blood Cell (Erythrocyte) | 40-45% of total blood volume. Transports oxygen from the lungs to all the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. Sickle cell anemia causes the malformation of these cells.
1a | Hemoglobin | The gas transporting protein molecu e that is 95% of the volume of red cells. They give the red color to blood when they are bound to oxygen.
Right Heart | Left Heart | 2 | White Blood Cell (Leukocyte) | Immune System. Defend against infection by viruses, bacteria and other foreign enemies
A1 | Atrium (left and right)
A2 | Ventricle (left and right)
B1 | Anterior Vena cava from the head
B1a | Inferior Vena cava from the lower body
B1b | Jugular Vein
B1c | Subclavian
B2 | Ascending Aorta
B2a | Descending Aorta
B2b | Carotid artery
B3a | Pulmonary artery (goes to lungs)
B3b | Pulmonary vein (comes from Lungs)
C1 | Tricuspid valve
C2 | Pulmonary valve (right ventricle to pulmonary artery)
C3 | Bicuspid valve
C4 | Aortic valve (left ventricle and aorta)
| 2a | Neutrophil 60-70% | Wound healing. Made in the bone marrow
2b | Eosinophil 5% | Attacks parasites like worms and eats antigens and antibodies
2c | Basophil 1% | Allergic response. Releases histamines and heparin
2d | Lymphocytes 25%-35% | T-Cell. Made in the thymus. Immune response and rejection of foreign tissue
2e | B-Cell. Made in the lymph nodes. Makes antibodies
2f | Monocyte (Macrophage) 3%-9% | Eat viruses and bacteria. They have different names in some organs (kupfer cells, microglia, mesangial, osteoclasts)
The heart pumps blood to the body through the artery and receives blood through the veins. Deoxygenated blood comes from the body through two large veins (vena cava) to the right atrium. It goes to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve and then it is pumped through the pulmonary valve through the pulmonary artery and to the lungs. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is added. The blood returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein and enters the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve. Then it is pumped through the aortic valve to the aorta and to the body. | 3 | Other Blood Components | Thrombocyte | (Platelet) causes blood to clot when there is an injury.
4 | Human Leukocyte Antigen System (HLA) | A group of over 100 antigens on the surface of cells are important for organ transplant because they are recognized by white blood cells.
5 | Antigen | A large protein found on the surface of red blood cells that gives the blood the type or identity.
6 | Antibody | They provide a major defense for our bodies against invasion by alien organisms. They recognize and eliminate bacteria and viruses, mismatched blood transfusions and organ transplants.
7 | Plasma | Clear liquid in which all the cells travel
Lymphatic System | Structures | Lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymphocytes, spleen, bone marrow, thymus, tonsils, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)), Peyer's patches
Function | Absorbs excess fluid, absorbs fat from the small intestine and immune response
There are 60,000 miles (96,000 Km) of blood vessels in our body.
Cardiologist. Treats diseases and impairments of the heart | Phlebotomist. Takes blood.
Hemophilia. Inability to clot blood causes bleeding | Sickle Cell Anemia. It deforms red blood cells
Heart Attack. Blood clot or clogged vessel in the heart. Stroke. Blood clot or clogged vessel in the brain. Deep Vein Thrombosis. Blood clot in the legs. Surfer's Myelopathy. Stroke to the spinal cord caused by arching the back and cutting off blood supply to the spine. | A blood clot or other substances can block the flow of blood and causes the surrounding cells to die and they eventually stop functioning. High cholesterol can build up in the walls of the blood vessels and block them.
Stethoscope. Instrument for listening to sounds in the body | Sphygmometer. Measures blood pressure
Blood Pressure. This is the force against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood through the body. It is given as two numbers. The systolic over the diastolic. Normal pressure is less than 120/80. | Systolic. Maximum pressure when the heart contracts
Diastolic. Pressure when the heart is at rest

The Ear.

The Ear | Structure
--- | ---
| 1 | Outer Ear | Pinna | Ear lobes collect sound
2 | External auditory meatus | Ear canal
3 | Middle Ear | Ear drum | Transmits sound
4a | Malleus | Bones amplify sound in this air filled chamber. Their movement is caused by the movement of the ear drums
4b | Incus
4c | Stapes
5 | Inner Ear | Cochlea | Interprets sound
6 | Nerves | Transmits signals to the brain
7 | Semi circular canal | Three fluid filled tubes aligned in three different directions. They give the sense of balance.
The TRPA-1 protein is a chemical that converts sound into electrical impulses.
Musician. Creates beautiful sounds for entertainment. | EENT. Eye, Ears nose and throat specialist.
Deaf. Inability to hear. Over 100 genes affect hearing | Vertigo. Lack of balance and dizziness
Otoscope. Instrument for examining the ear | Myringoscope. Instrument for viewing the ear drum

The Brain

| # | Brain | Area | Function
Left Hemisphere | Controls right side of body and verbal stimulii (words)
Right Hemisphere | Controls left side of body and non verbal stimulii (sounds)
Grey matter | Neuron cell bodies on the surface of the brain (cortex)
White Matter | Connecting fibers in the brain interior
Hind Brain | Medulla Oblangata, pons, cerebellum
1 | Medulla Oblangata | Regulates body functions such as breathing and heart beat
2 | Pons | The Pons and medulla control respiration
3 | Cerebellum | Cerebellum regulates posture and balance and coordinates skilled movements
Fore Brain | Cerebral Cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus
The brain weighs three pounds, and has more than 100 billion neurons and 50 billion supporting cells. If stacked on top of each other, they would reach 5000 miles. It uses 20% of the blood and 20% of the oxygen we breathe. The brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column. There are two halves called the left and right hemispheres, they are connected by the corpus callosum.
Organ | Stimulus | Senses
--- | --- | ---
Seeing and Hearing
Eye | Electro-magnetic Spectrum | Sight, Light
Pineal body | Light (seasons, biological clocks)
Ear, lungs, feet | Hearing
Ear, larynx | Echolocation, biosonar (RADAR)
Smelling and Tasting
Tongue | Chemicals and Volatiles | Taste (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami)
Nose, tongue | Smell
Vomeronasal (Jacobson's organ) | Pheromone (chemical signals for danger, alarm, sex, food trail)
Leaf
Feelings and Emotions
Skin, feet, hands, antenna, whiskers | Internal, nerves, gravity, physical, drugs, brain chemicals | Touch, temperature, pressure
Skin | Pain
Hypothalamus | Hunger, thirst
Insula | Hunger, cold, pain
Sex organs | Pleasure
Semi-circular canal, status stone | Balance (gravity), orientation
Magnetite (Fe3O4) | Electricity, magnetism | Magnetic field, migration, navigation
Greigite (Fe3S4)
Electrocytes (Ampullae of Lorenzini) | Electroreception, electric fields
Lateral line | Water pressure, electricity
Psalm 115 lists several senses and their organs. Sense. Speak, see, hear, smell, feel, walk, make sounds. Organs. Tongue, eye, ears, nose, hands, feet, throat. » Status Stone (Stone Of Standing). Shrimp place a grain of sand in a special place in their head every time they molt. | Cerebral Cortex | Outer portion of the cerebrum which is divided into lobes. (Frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital). The cerebrum is responsible for consciousness
4 | Temporal Lobe | Auditory Association area | Sound, memory storage
4a | Wernicke's area | (Lateral cerebral sulcus) Language comprehension
4b | Pituitary Gland | Endocrine gland which control the other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation
4c | Thalamus | All sensory input except smell
4d | Hypothalamus | Regulates the autonomic nervous system by hormone production and release. Hunger, blood pressure, heart rate, sleep and wake, arousal, thirst, water balance, body temperature, circadian cycles
4e | The Limbic System is a combination of several structures which control the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. This affects emotion and pleasure, memories, sex, hunger, sleep, judgment, mood, insight, motivation. Fasting. Learning to control the appetite will help to control the desires of the limbic system.
4e1 | Amygdala | Fear, jealousy, aggression
4e2 | Nucleus Accumbens | Reward, pleasure, addiction, sex
4e3 | Mesolimbic system | Secrete dopamine. Food cravings, sex, hallucinations, delusions
4e4 | Striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens) | Coordination center for chemical messengers. Process information from the limbic system and frontal lobe. Regulates dopamine levels, walking, balance. Superior autobiographical memory and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are associated with the caudate nucleus.
4e5 | Hippocampus | Long term memory
4e6 | Orbitofrontal Cortex | Decision making, morality
4e7 | Cingulate Gyrus | Autonomic functions. Heart rate, blood pressure, thinking about self
4f | Insula (Insular Cortex or Island of Reil). Integrates the mind and body displaying social emotions, things like lust and disgust, pride and humiliation, guilt and atonement. It gives moral intuition, empathy and the capacity to respond emotionally to music. Hunger, taste, craving, breathe, addiction, heat, cold, itch, tell fresh food from rotten, muscle ache, pain (anticipate or feel).
5a | Frontal Lobe | Prefrontal Cortex | Personality, complex thought, emotion. Accutane affects this part of the brain.
5b | Motor Association Cortex | Complex movement coordination
5c | Broca's Area | Speech center
5d | Auditory Cortex | Sound quality, loudness, tone
Homunculus ("The Little Man in the Brain").
Sensory | Motor
--- | ---
The brain has a map of the surface of the body on the parietal lobe. The map is based on the number and density of sensory and motor nerve connections and not on the physical proportions. So the hands and tongue appear to be larger than most body parts. It is responsible for the phantom limbs felt by amputees. They are arranged in order from the middle of the brain to the sides in this general order.
Motor | - | Feet | Trunk | Head | Arms | Eye | Face
Sensory | Genital | Feet | Trunk | Head | Arms | Eye | Face
Detailed Order. Genitals, toes, feet, legs, trunk, neck, head, shoulder, arm, hand, fingers, thumb, eye, nose, face, lips, jaw, tongue, swallowing, intra-abdominal. | 5e | Primary Motor Cortex | Voluntary movement. Motor homunculus
5f | Primary Somatosensory Cortex | Touch signals. Sensory homunculus
Central Sulcus | (Fissure of Rolando) is a fold or groove separating the frontal and parietal lobes
Corpus Callosum | Bundle of axons (300 million fibers) connecting the left and right hemispheres.
6 | Parietal Lobe | Sensory Association Cortex | Touch, pressure, pain, temperature, homunculus
7a | Occipital Lobe | Visual Association area | Complex visual information
7b | Visual Cortex | Simple visual information
9 | Spinal Cord | Carries signals between the brain and the body. It is located in the center of the vertebrae
White Matter | Connecting fibers that form the interior of the brain
Gray Matter | The neurons that form the cortex on the surface
Central Nervous System | The brain and the spinal cord

The Nervous System

Human Nervous System | Central Nervous System | Brain and Spinal Cord | Somatic Nervous System. Voluntary response from sense organs to muscular system
Peripheral Nervous System | Somatic Nervous System | Voluntary Responses | Autonomic Nervous System. From internal receptors to smooth muscles and glands. They affect the sympathetic and the parasympathetic motor system. The Sympathetic system activates the body with noradrenaline, causing the "fight or flight" response. The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine to relax the body.
Autonomic Nervous System | Involuntary Responses
The neurons transmit electrical signals between the brain, spine, muscles and sensory organs.
The nerves are the electrical system of the body. Signals travel from the brain through the nerves. Chemicals at the end of the nerves help to block or transmit signals to the next nerve. It is these chemicals that are mostly affected by illegal drugs. Neurotransmitters. Cross the synapse to send a signal. Some examples are, Acetylcholine, noradrenaline, norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. Drugs usually act on the neurotransmitters by either blocking their actions or mimicking them.
| Peripheral Nervous System | The neurons of the brain and spine
Sensory Neurons | Send information from the outside to the central nervous system. They have long dendrons and short axons. Cell body and dendrites are outside the spinal cord
Relay Neurons | These nerves carry signals between neurons. They have short axons and dendrons and are located in the spinal cord.
Motor Neurons | Send information from the central nervous to the muscles. They have short dendrons and long axons. Axon is outside the spinal cord and the terminals attach to the muscles.
10a | Neuron | Cell Body | Sends and receives nerve signals
10b | Dendron | Sends signals to the cell body
10c | Axon | Sends electrical signals from the cell
10d | Axon Terminals | They secrete neurotransmitters into the synapse
10e | Myelin sheath | Insulation created by the schwann cell which is wrapped around the axon. It increases the speed of the signal.
10f | Synapse | The space between the axon termonal of one neuron and the dendron of another
Neurologist. Treats diseases of the brain | Psychiatrist. Treats mental disorders
Huntington's Disease. Inherited disease destroys brain | Creutzfeldt-Jakob (CFJ). Human form of Mad Cow Disease
Lou Gehrig's Disease (ALS). Damages motor nerves | Parkinson's disease. Nerve cells in the brain die
Alzheimers. Dementia, possibly caused by type 3 diabetes due to insulin receptors in the brain | Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration (FTLD). Young onset dementia caused by shrinking brain
Lewy Body Disease (LBD). Dementia caused by abmormal structures in the midbrain or cortex, microscopic protein deposits in the nerve that disrupts signals | Niemann Pick Disease Type C. Childhood dementia caused by fatty deposit buildup in the cells

The Eye

The Eye | Structure
--- | ---
| 1 | Outer Eye | Eye lids | Protects the eye
2 | Tear duct | Cleans the eye. Keeps it moist
3a | Eye ball | Iris | The colored part that changes the size of the pupil and the amount of light.
3b | Pupil | The opening of the eye in the iris
4a | Cornea | Adjusts the focus of the light
4b | Lens | Adjusts the focus of the light
- | Fluid | Aqueous Humor | The watery liquid in the front chamber before the iris and lens
- | Vitreous Body | The jelly liquid in the rear chamber behind the iris and lens
The retina contains 100 million rods and seven million cones and a chemical called rhodopsin, or "visual purple." Rhodopsin converts light into electrical impulses that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve. The cones are sensitive to red, blue and green. Rods handle vision in low light. Look at what a color blind person sees. The Blind Spot. It occurs where the about 1 million axons of the nerves and blood vessels exit the eye. At that location there can be no rods or cones to interpret vision.
Cover your right eye. Look at the cross and move closer to the screen. The bulb will disappear. This is the blind spot.
The Yellow Spot (Fovea). It is a part of the retina located behind the pupil and includes only cones. It is responsible for good visual resolution. Night Blindness. The inability to see clearly in the dark. Vitamin A deficiency can cause this problem because it is used to make retinal, which is a part of the pigment which absorbs light. | 5 | Nerve Signals | Retina | Converts light to nerve impulses. Two dimensional images appear up side down on the retina
6 | Rods | Rods interpret black and white color
Cones | Cones absorb red, green or blue light
7 | Optic Nerves | Sends signals to the occipital lobe of the brain
8a | Muscles | Lateral and medial rectus | Moves eye away from and towards the nose
8b | Superior and Inferior rectus | Raises and Lowers eye
8c | Superior and Inferior oblique | Rotates eye
8d | Ciliary body | It contracts and relaxes to control the size of the lens for focusing
8e | Dilator and sphincter | Makes the iris smaller or larger. As the iris gets smaller the pupil gets larger.
- | Layers | Sclerotic Coat | Tough outer layer. The white of the eye and the transparent cornea
- | Choroid Coat | Middle layer. Pigmented with melanin, forms the iris
5 | Retina | Inner layer with light receptors
Opthalmologist. Treats diseases of the eye | Optometrist. Prescribes eyeglasses
Cataracts. Cloudy appearance of the lens | Glaucoma. Pressure in the eye from excess aqueous humor
Myopia. Nearsightedness. | Hyperopia. Farsightedness.
Opthalmoscope. Views the interior of the eye | Chromatoptometer. Measures the eye's sensitivity to color

Color Deficiency.
Our eyes have three color receptors (red, blue, green). These are the primary colors of light. A person with color blindness (color deficiency) has difficulty seeing one or more of these colors. However, they may be extremely good at identifying variations in shade of the same color. This makes them excellent snipers and good at identifying camouflaged objects.

Color Blindness | Normal Color | Deficient Color
--- | --- | ---
Normal (Trichromat) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Normal
Protanomaly | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Low red
Deuteranomaly | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Low green
Tritanomaly | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Low blue
Protanopia | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | No red
Deuteranopia | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | No green
Tritanopia | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | No blue
Cone Monochromat | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | Low color
Rod Monochromat | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | No color
Normal | Red | Orange | Yellow | Lime | Green | Cyan | Blue | Violet | Pink
Click on the link to see a color deficient version of the picture.
One out of every twelve people has a color deficiency. This is about 8% of males and 0.4% of females in the United States.
Deuteranomaly is the most common form of color blindness (5% of males, 0.38% females).
Tetrachromats have four color receptors and pentachromats have five. This enhanced ability to see color may only exist in birds and some insects. |
Visual acuity. 20/40 (6/12) means that what a person sees at 20 feet (6 meters) can be seen at 40 feet (12 meters) by someone with normal vision | Normal Vision. 20/20 (6/6)
Legally blind. 20/200 (6/60) vision or worse
Pseudoisochromatic Plate Test (Ishihara Test). Dichromatic vision | Anomaloscope. Finds red-green deficiencies

Other animals can see a range of one to four colors including the spectra outside the visible light. Mosquitos see infrared. Bees, many other insects, spiders and birds have ultraviolet eyesight.

- Monochromates. See one color, blue. Squids and deep sea fishes.
- Dichromates. See two colors, blue and green. Most mammals cannot see red.
- Trichromates. See three colors, blue, green and red. e.g. Humans
- Tetrachromates. See four colors, blue, green, red and ultraviolet. Goldfish sees four colors.

Imagine | Do you think that we will be able to see radio waves or hear visible light when we go to heaven? Are there other colors? Can we hear, feel, smell or taste colors? It is possible if God widens the range of our receptors. Imagine seeing a song and composing music so that the color combinations and patterns it creates are as interesting as the sound. Could we create a song that generates heat that will keep us warm or cool? If we can use heat to run motors, is it possible to use sound or light as a new energy source?
Synesthesia. This means joined perception. It is a condition in which some people experience another sense in addition to the primary sensation. They might experience a certain taste when they hear sound. Or see colors associated with letters. This is because the areas in the brain that process the senses are close to each other and have developed crossed links. So no two people will have the same experience. This is different from the ability that I describe above.

The Endocrine System

Gland | Hormone | Function | Excess | Deficiency
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Endocrine | Pituitary | Luteinizing (LH) | Production of testosterone, estrogen and progesterone | Precocious puberty | Delayed or absent puberty
Follicle Stimulating (FSH) | Stimulate egg or sperm production | Polycystic ovary syndrome | Infertility
Human Growth (HGH) | Muscle, fat, liver and bone growth | Gigantism, Acromegaly | Pituitary Dwarfism
Prolactin | Stimulate milk production | Infertility | No lactation
Melanocyte stimulating (MSH) | Places melanin in the skin | Melanism | Leukoderma
Thyroid stimulating (TSH) | Stimulate thyroxine | Hyperthyroidism | Hypothyroidism
Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) | Stimulate adrenal gland | Cushing's Syndrome | Addison's Disease
Adrenal Glands | Cortisol | Immune suppression and stress response | Cushing's Syndrome | Addison's Disease
Hypothalamus | Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | Preserve fluid and electrolyte balance. Water retention | Water retention | Diabetes insipidus
Hypothalamus | Oxytocin | Contractions of the uterus during labor | - | -
Thymus | Thymosin | Regulates the lymph system and T-cell production. It stops working at puberty | Myasthenia Gravis | No immune system. Degeorges syndrome
Pineal Gland | Melatonin | Biological clock, regulates sleep | Depression | Insomnia
Thyroid | Thyroxin T4, T3 | Basal metabolic rate | Graves' disease | Goiter, cretinism, myxedema
Parathyroid | Parathyroid hormone | Regulates blood calcium, phosphorus and magnesium | Hypercalcemia | Hypocalcemia
Testes | Testosterone | Male characteristics | Precocious puberty | Abdominal fat
Ovaries | Estrogen | Female characteristics | Allergies | Raised LDL, osteoporosis
Progesterone | Female characteristics | Incontinence | Hypoglycemia, obesity
Pancreas | Insulin | Regulates blood sugar levels | Hypoglycemia | Diabetes mellitus
Exocrine | Pancreas | Gastric juices | Duodenum | Glands that secrete products through ducts or canals, such as sweat glands or mammary glands.
Mammary | Milk | Breasts
Prostate | Seminal fluid | Secretes slightly alkaline fluid
Salivary | Saliva | Initiate digestion
Sweat | Sweat | Cool body
Lacrimal | Tear | Eyes
Sebaceous | Oil (sebum) | Hair follicle
The liver is the largest gland in the body
Endocrinologist. A doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the endocrine system (glands and hormone levels)
Goiter. A swollen thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency

Hormones are powerful chemical regulators that affect every system of the body that are manufactured in organs called glands. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood stream. Exocrine glands release hormones into a duct connected to the target or directly outside.
Pituitary Gland. It is called the master gland because it stimulates other glands to secrete hormones. It is responsible for sending the message to begin puberty.
Liver. It is the largest gland. It is responsible for filtering many toxins and for aiding in digestion.
Because hormones affect all systems, a malfunction can cause many diseases. This malfunction can be caused by defects in production, transport, delivery and clearance of the hormones.

- Production. Hormones production may be too excess or deficient for the body to work normally.
- Delivery. There may not be enough receptors, or binding sites at the target.
- Transport. A problem with the system regulating the hormones in the blood stream.
- Uptake. There may be problems clearing hormones from the blood.

Reproductive System

| Structure | Function
--- | --- | ---
1 | Female | Ovary | Eggs
1a | Fallopian Tube | Eggs travel down this tube to the uterus
2 | Uterus | Baby storage
2a | Cervix | Entrance to the uterus
2b | Vagina | Birth canal
2c | Placenta | Blood supply from the mother to the baby
2d | Umbilical Cord | Blood vessels from baby to mother
2e | Amniotic fluid | Baby swimming pool. Cushions baby
The egg is fertilized when the sperm meets an egg from the ovary. The egg is attached to the uterus and begins to grow. It takes forty weeks for the baby to grow in humans. | Female | 2f | Baby | Cries all night, eats a lot. Cute. Expensive. Not a toy. Wait until you are married.
Male | 3 | Both | Urinary bladder | Urine is stored here
| 3a | Ureter | Urine flows to the bladder
3b | Urethra | Urine or sperm flows to the outside
4 | Large Intestine | Eliminates solid waste
1 | Male | Testicles | Eggs (sperm)
1a | Vas Deferens | Sperm travels to the urethra.
1b | Epididymis | Sperm matures and is stored here
2 | Penis | Urinary and sexual organ
2a | Corpus Cavernosum | Helps to keep the penis erect
2b | Corpus Spongiosum | Helps to keep the penis erect
2c | Prostate Gland | Releases alkaline fluid that buffers the acidic urine.
Circumcision: The loose outer skin is stretched and a small portion is cut off and buried. At 8 days old the Jewish male perfomed this ceremony to join the covenant. It is a sign that the Messiah would have His outer human body cut off. | 2d | Seminal Vesicle | Stores mucus, fructose, amino acids and hormones to help the sperm
2e | Prepuce | Foreskin cut off in circumcision
Male. Did you know that God used circumcision to illustrate what would happen to Him as He kept His vows in the Plan of Salvation? God made peace by offering Himself and He became the Father of a new creation through His seed.
Female. Did you know that God also used the female reproductive system to illustrate the timing of the Plan of Salvation?
Pediatrician. Treats diseases in children Neonatologist. Treats premature children, newborns | Gynecologist. Treats diseases and impairments in women Obstetrician. Treats pregnant women
Pregnancy. A child growing in the uterus | Prostate Cancer.

Pregnancy Anomalies

Gender Determination | A gene on the Y chromosome (SRY) is the master switch for making a male. There are two ways to determine gender. Whether an organism is male or female.
1 | External Sexual Characteristics | The gender is male if there is a penis.
2 | XX or XY Chromosomes | The sperm and egg each have half of the genes (chromosomes) needed. The egg has only "X" chromosomes. The sperm can either have "X" or "Y" chromosomes. The gender is female if the chromosomes are "XX" and male if they are "XY". In rare cases an egg can lose one of these chromosomes. An "XO" fetus is a female that may have begun as an "XX" female or "XY" male. "OY" fetus is probably a possibility.
Variations | Hermaphrodite | An organism with both sexes, or the external characteristics are partially from both genders. Earthworms and garden snails are complete hermaphrodites.
Parthenogenesis | The ability of an unfertilized egg to hatch. Usually, only females are produced. But unfertilized bee eggs turn into males in the spring.
Delayed Implantation Embryonic Diapause Delayed Pregnancy | Over 100 species can delay their pregnancy after fertilization for days up to over a year. Embryos temporarily cease developing and enter a state of dormancy, existing as free-floating, microscopic balls of cells (blastocysts) in the uterus until the female is ready. e.g. Bear, skunk, seal, marten, fisher, rodents, weasels, seals, otters, fruit bats, armadillos, kangaroos, nutrias and red pandas
Multiple Births | Fraternal | Separate eggs fertilized by different sperm cells which may be of different sex
Identical | One egg divides and each new cell becomes a separate fetus with the same sex (gender) and the same genetic profile.
# | Multiples
--- | ---
2 | Twins
3 | Triplets
4 | Quadruplets
5 | Quintuplets
6 | Sextuplets
7 | Septuplets
8 | Octuplets
9 | Nonuplets
10 | Decaplets
15 | Quindecaplets
Multiple births occur when there are more than one fertilized egg or a single egg develops into separate babies. Several anomalies can occur in this process. Conjoined. Incomplete division of a cell causes fusion at the physical level with an incomplete separation of identical children after the twelfth day of fertilization. Each section develops into a separate fetus that are joined in their physical body. Joining can occur at the front, side or back at the head, chest, abdomen or hips. » Acardius-Acephalus (Parasitic Twin). A poorly formed fetus that does not have a heart or a brain is attached to a complete baby and is completely dependant on the normal child. The parasite can appear as an extra leg or a complete baby. Sometimes these extra limbs can be attached in strange places. Acardiac. A baby whose upper body is not developed. It has no head, heart or arms. If it survives in the womb it is because it uses the blood supply of its twin. » Sirenomelia (Mermaid Syndrome). Fusion of the legs. This is a birth defect that is not related to conjoined twins.
Type of Join | Head (Cranium) | Chest (Thorax) | Abdomen | Hip (Pelvis)
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Ventral (Front) | Cephalopagus (Janus Twin) | Thoracopagus (35%) | Xiphopagus | Omphalopagus (30%) | Ischiopagus (6%)
Cephalothoracopagus | Thoraco-Omphalopagus | Omphalo-Ischiopagus
Lateral (Side) | (Not joined) | (Not joined) | (Not joined) | Parapagus (5%)
Dithoracic Parapagus
Dicephalic Parapagus (Dicephalus). (One body and two heads)
Diprosopic Parapagus. (One body, one head and two faces)
Dorsal (Back) | Craniopagus (2%) | Rachipagus | Pygopagus (19%)
Superfetation. Having a second pregnancy while you are already pregnant. This is extremely rare. Fetus in Fetu (Baby in a Baby). An undeveloped fetus is encased into the body of the other twin. One fetus is absorbed into the cell of the other during the early stages. So it is possible that this could occur with either identical or fraternal twins. It does not have any internal organs and does not develop into a viable baby. It is completely dependent on the normal baby. » Teratoma (Monster Tumor). This is a tumor that may have hair, teeth and other tissues and may look like a cyst caused by a fetus in fetu. However, it is a cancer that is caused by unfertilized reproductive cells (egg or sperm) dividing and differentiating like a normal fertilized egg. Hormone Anomalies. Male or female external characteristics can develop because of a malfunction in the hormones or abnormal levels of the correct hormones during gestation. » Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS). Genetic males with an XY chromosome who do not develop the male features because the male hormones (androgens) are not functioning normally. Testosterone is produced but the body cannot process it and actually turns it into estrogen. So feminization of the external sexual characteristics develops and the penis does not form and the testes do not descend. Chimera and Genetic Mosaics. Fusion at the cellular level that can occur between eggs of the same sex or opposite sex. A person whose non-identical twin was merged with their cell and causes them to have two different DNA in various body tissues with various degrees of expression. While chimerism of identical twins may be impossible to prove, only chimerism of fraternal twins can be detected. » Hermaphrodite. A true hermaphrodite is a chimera in which both male and female genes are fully expressed. Most hermaphrodites are either genetic males or female whose sexual organs have changed because of sex hormones in the womb. » Turner's Syndrome. This disease is caused when an egg loses an "X" or "Y" chromasome. If a male egg loses a "Y" chromosome, he genetically becomes an "XO" female with one "X" chromosome. If this occurs in one of two identical twin boys, then we could have a case when identical twins would be male and an infertile female! This anomaly may occur in some or in all cells. So far it seems to occur only in real girls whose father has lost the "X" chromosome. » Noonan's Syndrome. This occurs in boys who have the same symptoms as girls with Turner's but they have no damaged chromosomes. Is this a Possibility? Normally, when a sperm fertilizes an egg, a change occurs in the lining that prevents penetration by other sperms. Is it possible that this system can be compromised? So chimerism could be caused by a variation of fetus in fetu at the cellular level in the early stages of cell division, or it could also be caused by a second sperm penetrating the egg. The second sperm could be the same or the opposite sex as the first. In Vitro Fertilization ("Test Tube Babies"). Chimerism appears most often in cases of In vitro fertilization. Possibly cases of gender identification may be prevalent also. With "test tube" babies, many male and female eggs are simultaneously fertilized together in a dish which is a soupy mixture of male and female chemicals. In the body, these are most likely separated for three to ten days. If there is a multiple birth, identical twins would be of the same gender. Fraternal twins of opposite genders may come from separate ovaries and are separated for days before they are implanted in the uterus. Who knows how the unnatural forced chemical environment affects the growing fetus. Cancer is more prevalent in this group. The cancer process and the development of the cells into a fetus have important common elements. Both involve the rapid growth of cells. In addition, teratomas are cells that have received the instruction to differentiate like an embryo. While the development of the embryo eventually includes instructions to stop this process, cancer cells do not receive or respond to these instructions. So, understanding embryonic development may lead to a cure for cancer. And, understanding teratomas may lead to the growth of replacement body parts.

Digestive System

| Process | Structure | Function
--- | --- | --- | ---
1 | Ingestion Swallowing and mixing | Esophagus | Mouth and teeth grind food and it is sent down the esophagus. Saliva in the mouth mixes with the food and breaks down starch
2 | Stomach | Holds and mixes food. Kills bacteria and living cells with hydrochloric acid and breaks down protein with pepsin
3 | Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation | Small intestine | 17 feet long (518 cm). Digests and absorbs food. The duodenum in the upper part digests food and the rest of the intestine (jejunum and ileum) abso bs nutrients. The cause of diabetes may be found in the duodenum
4 | Pancreas | Insulin manages glucose. Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes acid. Digestive enzymes break down food
5 | Liver | Breaks down fat, removes toxins, stores glucose
6 | Gall bladder | Makes bile which helps to digest fat
7 | Appendix | Processes good bacteria for digestion
Peristalsis is the automatic movement of the muscles of the esophagus to send food towards the stomach | 7 | Large Intestine | 5 feet (152 cm) long. (Caecum, appendix, ascending colum, transverse colon, descending colon, rectum). Absorbs water
Egestion (Elimination) | Holds and removes solid waste
8 | Rectum | Solid waste exit
| Ruminant Stomach | Some vegetarian animals have a stomach designed to digest plant material. Their stomach has four parts. During digestion, food goes from the mouth to the first and second stomach. Then the animal lies down and the food is regurgitated and is swallowed into the third stomach. Then it goes to the fourth stomach and to the intestines.
1 | Chewing and fermentation | Rumen | The bacteria named cellulase breaks down and ferments cellulose
2 | Reticulum | Packs undigested food into cud so that it can be regurgitated and chewed again.
3 | Ingestion | Omasum | Water is absorbed
4 | Abomasum (True Stomach) | Prepares food for digestion in the small intestine. It releases hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
Did you know that God used the ruminant stomach to illustrate the resurrection which is a critical part of the Plan of Salvation? The stomach of the clean animal demonstrates the death burial and resurrection of the Seed of God who would spring back to life after it fell into the earth and died.
Cows eat as much as 90 pounds (41 kg) of food each day. This produces methane gas in their stomach. They can expel as much as 600 liters (132 gallons) of gas each day (from both ends). This includes up to 455 liters (100 gallons) of burps. But cows that eat grass instead of feed mixtures produce less methane. Since methane is a greenhouse gas, cows contribute to global warming.
Gastroenterologist. Treats the digestive system. | Veterinarian. Treats diseases and impairments in animals
Ulcer. An acid burn in the stomach wall | Halitosis. Bad breath
Gastroscope. Instrument examines the stomach | Proctoscope. Instrument for examining the rectum

Urinary System

| Structure | Function
1 | Kidneys | Nephron | Saves nutrients and concentrates urea
2a | Blood Vessels | Aorta | Blood is filtered under pressure and water, salt, amino acids and urea are removed. Everything except urea is later reabsorbed.
2b | Renal artery
3a | Renal vein
3b | Vena cava
4 | Elimination | Ureter | Urine flows from the kidney to the bladder through this tube
5 | Urinary bladder | Urine is stored here
7 | Urethra, Penis | Urine flows outside through one of these organs
Urologist. Treats diseases of the urinary system | Proctologist. Treats the intestines
Kidney Stones. Ureter blocked by deposits of calcium | Anuresis. Bed wetting
Cytoscope. Instrument for examining the bladder | Colonoscope. Instrument examines the colon

Input And Output Flow Control

Images | Sound | Air | Words | Food | - |  | (Ileum) | Bladder |  | Ureter |
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Eyes | Ears | Nose | Mouth | Stomach | (Jejunum) | Colon |  | Testicles | Penis
|  |  | - | - |  | - |  | - | Small Intestine |  | Kidney | Ovaries | -
Brain | Esophagus |  | (Duodenum) | Uterus | Vagina |
| Heart |  | - |  |  | Gall bladder |  |
Lungs | Liver |  | Pancreas | Large Intestine | Rectum |
Physical Food. Through the action of peristalsis and respiration, water, food and air flow into our bodies as nutrients and carbon dioxide, urine and feces flow out as waste. Mental Food. Through the action of seeing and hearing, information and knowledge flow in as mental nutrients. Through the act of speaking and teaching, information flows out as wisdom and understanding. Ignorance and rebellion can also flow out as waste. Spiritual Food. When we choose to learn about God by reading, hearing and listening to spiritual things, our mental food becomes spiritual food that gives eternal life. No waste flows out.

Designer | The fact that male and female exist is the greatest proof that God exists. It is impossible for one complicated human being to evolve, but it is even more impossible for a male and a female to have evolved because they would have to evolve within 30 years and a short distance from each other. And this miracle of both male and female evolving must be repeated at least 26 million times (twice for each of the 13 million species we have named on earth). But there are probably over 100 million species.

Imagine | Which system in our body do you think we will not have in our new bodies in heaven? Why? How do you think we will function without it?

What Do You Think? | Animals, people and plants were about 200%-300% larger in the beginning and lived ten times longer. Only since advancement in modern technology, nutrition and medicine have we seen a small increase in age and size since the middle ages (3 inches or 8 cm). We can link the decrease in age to a change in diet from vegetarian to carniverous. What could have caused the great reduction in size? Change in diet and waste products. Pollution. Exposure to radiation. Decrease in the speed of light. Genetic changes and genetic pollution.

Sabbath Rest

Creation Day 7 (Saturday) | The Sabbath day was created as a day of rest. On that day, God had a party to celebrate. In creating the Sabbath, He established the mental and spiritual laws. These are rest, fellowship and love for others and for God.
Sabbath | Radioactive elements are in the seventh period. These are very energetic particles that need rest by turning into a more stable form. The Sabbath is given for rest.

Special Delivery
My Child You may not know Me, but I know everything about you. Psalm 139:1 I have counted all the hairs on your head. Matthew 10:29-31 You were made in My image. Genesis 1:27 Because of Me you are alive. Acts 17: 28 For you are My child. Acts 17: 28 I knew you even before you were conceived. Jeremiah 1: 5 I chose you when I planned creation. Ephesians 1: 11-12 You were not a mistake. Psalm 139: 15-16 I determined the exact time of your birth. Acts 17: 26 You are lovingly and wonderfully made. Psalm 139: 14 I knit you together in your mother's womb. Psalm 139: 13 And brought you out on the day you were born. Psalm 71: 6 I Love you. John 3: 16
Pastor. Provides spiritual guidance.
Sin. Inability to make good moral choices
Bible. Recorded knowledge about God and His actions

Caring For God
You can care for God by remembering how great He is. He created the world in six days He loves you. To care for Him you can do the following:

- Challenge the theory of evolution by learning as much as you can.
- Pray to Him every day. Talk about your day. He needs good news. Find out about His day. He probably had to comfort a lot of people.
- Let God be your hero. Not a movie star or an athlete. Have they ever dunked a star three billion miles away? Can they make a frog with blue dots or speak to a butterfly?
- Tell others about Him.
- Obey Him. He knows what is good for your mind and body.
- Praise Him for His mighty acts. Thank Him for the ozone, for trees, for the indigo bunting.

  Smoking Damages the Lung
  Normal Lung | Smoker's Lung | Emphysema
  --- | --- | ---
  The lung is pink with little black spots caused by inhaling carbon from pollution. | This lung is black with deposits of carbon and tar. The white spots are cancer. | Parts of the lung cannot expand or contract. It is difficult to breathe.
  Difficult Breathing. Take a deep breath and hold it. Take two more deep breaths without exhaling. The last two breaths are what it is like to breathe with emphysema.
  Source: http://www.whyquit.com
  Oncologist. Treats cancer.
  Emphysema. Damaged lung impairs breathing

- Be confident in His moral teachings. Loving and caring is more than agreeing with your friends. It is agreeing with God. You show His love best by being kind to everyone. You show your love to Him by obeying Him, no matter what your friends say.
- Appreciate our wonderful bodies and respect ourselves and others.
- He has set aside time for you to meet Him every Saturday Sabbath. This is the birthday of the world where we celebrate the mighty Creator and His wonderful creation. You are the most important part of that creation.

Caring For Your Mind And Body
Many people abuse dangerous legal substances, prescription drugs and illegal drugs because of the good feeling that they get for ten minutes. Unfortunately, these are addictive, destroy the mind and the body and your future.
Although some drugs give a good feeling in the beginning, they quickly become addictive and it takes more of the drug to give the same high, until finally there is no more pleasure and you need to take the drugs to avoid the pain of withdrawal.
Alcohol and Cigarettes. Legal substances such as alcohol and cigarettes are often the first substances used and become the gate through which the other drugs are abused. Here are some facts about smoking.

- 90% of the tar that is inhaled stays in the lungs.
- 90% of emphysema cases are caused by smoking. The lungs are unable to exhale because there is no more elasticity.
- Smoking causes cancer of the lung, tongue, lip, mouth, throat, esophagus, larynx, pharynx, pancreas and bladder.

Organized Crime. In addition, the people who profit from the sales of these drugs are also responsible for the cycle of evil in murder, crime, slavery, terrorism and misery.
Appetite Suppressants. I also notice that many drugs created as appetite suppressants commonly become these narcotic drugs or are banned because they cause permanent damage. The class of drugs designed as appetite suppressants have proven to be dangerous almost every time. They have destroyed the brain, liver and the heart tissue. Do not let the drug companies experiment on you.
Club Drug. These are drugs that are popular at bars, all night parties and dances. MDMA (Ecstasy), GHB, Rohypnol, ketamine, methamphetamine, and LSD.

Drug | Effects | Brain damage
--- | --- | ---
Legal substances | Food, household chemicals
Caffeine | Stimulant "Uppers" |  | Alter sleep pattern, reduce motor coordination, headaches, dizziness, nervousness. 10 grams is fatal. Caffeine is found in coffee, tea and soft drinks.
Alcohol | Depressant "Downers" | Frontal lobe, poor coordination, reduces brain size, low weight babies, mental retardation, birth defects
Nicotine (Cigarettes, tobacco) | Stimulant |  | Cancer, lung disease, heart disease, emphysema, stroke, bronchitis, bad breath, yellow teeth. 33% or one in every three cancer deaths are caused by smoking. Every month tobacco kills 418,000 people in the world, including 36,000 Americans!
Hallucinogenic mushrooms | Hallucinogen | Hallucination, deep sleep, similar to symptoms of alcohol intoxication
Inhalants | Depressant |  | Nail polish, paint, glue, gasoline and over 100 products can be inhaled. They cause permanent damage to the brain and other organs and death. Effects are hallucination, memory loss, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, sleepiness and slurred speech. They affect the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus.
Nitrous Oxide | Dissociative | Laughing gas, gas, whippitts, nitrous, blue bottle. Anesthesia. Kidney or liver damage, peripheral neuropathy, spontaneous abortion
Over the Counter Medicine | Legal drugs
Dextromithorphan | Depressant | Triple-C, robo. The effects are similar to PCP or morphine. It is found in cough medicine such as coriciden and robitussin.
Codeine | Depressant | The effects are similar to PCP or morphine.
Controlled Substances | Prescription drugs, illegal drugs
Amphetamine | Stimulant |  | Same effects as cocaine
Methamphetamine | Stimulant | (Speed, meth, chalk, ice, crystal, glass) Parkinson's disease symptoms, euphoria, aggression, insomnia, confusion, tremors, paranoia, convulsions, stroke, anorexia and anxiety. Very addictive.
Ritalin | Stimulant | (West Coast) same effect as Amphetamines. Given to ADHD children
Barbiturates | Depressant | Anxiety, insomnia, seizures, nausea, hallucinations, reduces inhibitions
Oxycontin | Depressant | A pain reliever with effects that are similar to heroin. It can also be crushed, dissolved in water and injected.
Methadone | Depressant | A pain reliever with effects that are similar to heroin. Used to treat heroin addiction but it is more addictive
Rohypnol (Flunitrazepam) | Depressant | Date Rape Drugs These drugs are colorless, odorless, tasteless and erases memory of crimes being done on your body | (Roofies, Roach, R-2, Mind Erasers, Roche, Stupifi, Shays). Permanent memory loss, visual disturbance, motion difficulty, drowsiness, confusion, dizziness, respiratory depression, amnesia
1,4-Butanediol (BD) | Depressant | Permanent memory loss. Becomes GHB in the body
Illegal substances and Club Drugs | Drugs, pills, plants
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyerate) | Depressant | Date rape drug with a salty taste. (Tranquility G, midnight blue, GHB, GBH, Liquid Ecstasy, Liquid X, Georgia Home Boy, Grievous Bodily Harm, Liquid G, Somatomax, Cherry Meth, Easy Lay, Gamma 10) Permanent memory loss. Death. Coma, loss of consciousness, decreased inhibitions, nausea, convulsions, amnesia - same effects as alcohol. The dosage needed to get high is close to the lethal dose. It is used as an industrial floor cleaner.
Ecstasy (MDMA) | Stimulant | Permanent brain damage, memory loss, lowers inhibitions.
Ketamine | Hallucinogen | (Special K, Vitamin K, Ket, K, Kit Kat, Keller, Cat Valium, Purple, Super C) used as an animal tranquilizer. It causes delerium, amnesia, motor and respiratory problems. It is a powder that is smoked and is usually combined with other drugs.
Cocaine | Stimulant, Hallucinogen |  | (Crank, crack cocaine). It is smoked, inhaled or injected. Insomnia, depression, hallucination, anxiety, headache, euphoria and death
Crystal Meth | Stimulant | (Glass, ice) A type of amphetamine in powder form
PCP | Depressant, stimulant, analgesic, hallucinogen | Eaten, inhaled, injected or smoked. (Angel dust, hog, rocket fuel, DOA, peace pill) Violent, suicidal, psychotic, confusion, drooling, coma and death
LSD | Hallucinogen | Hallucination, paranoia, confusion, panic and the effects can occur for years after
Heroin, opium | Depressant | (Horse, crank, smack, jive, dope, shag, junk, black tar) It is smoked, inhaled or injected. Sleepiness, reduces pain, brief euphoria, coma, death
Marijuana | Depressant |  | (Grass, pot, weed, reefer) Hallucination, delusion, sleepiness, impaired memory, disorientation
Hashish | Depressant | Same effect as marijuana
Salvia | Hallucinogen | Divine sage, magic mint. Same effect as LSD. Suicidal thoughts
Designer Drugs | Barely legal drugs. A new drug designed to mimic the effect of controlled substances but is legal because it is not yet controlled
Bath Salts | Stimulant |  | Same effect as cocaine and amphetamines
2C-I | Hallucinogen | (Smiles) Phenylethylamines. 2Cs class of drugs causes strokes, increase heart rate and cause it to beat out of rhythm
Fake Weed, K2, K3 | Hallucinogen | (Spice, Black Mamba, Mr. Nice guy). Synthetic marijuana sprayed with psychotropic drug and sold as organic blend for smoking, incense or potpourri. It is illegal in many countries. The effects are the same as marijuana, but with elevated blood pressure and heart rate. It is sold and labeled only as herbs. However, several synthetic drugs which can be up to 800 times more potent than cannabis are the active ingredients
Dangerous Behavior | Children get a high without drugs by causing oxygen deprivation through asphyxiation, or hyperventilation. A high is also achieved when oxygen rushes back to the brain.
The Choking Game | Stimulant | (Space game, blackout, dream monkey, pass out game, fainting game, tingling game, gasp, knockout). Causes brain damage and death. Symptoms are headaches, red eyes, blood shot eyes, and marks on the neck. One method is to use other objects to choke themselves. So look for ties, ropes, bags or anything than can be used for choking or hanging.
Mortician. Prepares a dead body for burial. | Autopsy Surgeon. Examines body for the cause of death
Lawyer. Defends a criminal in court. | Detective and Police. Investigates crimes, arrests criminal.
Addiction. Abnormal dependency on drugs | Alcoholism. Abnormal dependency or addiction to alcohol
Alcoholometer. Measures alcohol content | Breathalyzer. Field test for measuring alcohol intoxication

You are lovingly and wonderfully made. Do remarkable things for your mind and body.

Caring For Your Mind And Body: Food And Nutrition

Grains, Cereal | Fruit | Vegetables | Beans, Nuts | Dairy | Fats, oil | Water
God describes bread and water as our basic foods. This was the diet in the Exodus.
My Vegetarian Food Pyramid
2000 Calories
Food Group | Servings | Vegan Vegetarian | Ovo-lacto Vegetarian | Kosher | Omnivore
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Water | 6 - 8 | All
Grains and Roots | 6 - 11 (6 oz) | Rice, whole grain, cereal, couscous, bread, pasta, flour, potato, yam
Vegetables | 3 - 5 (2½ cups) | All vegetables
Fruits | 2 - 4 (2 cups) | All fruits
Protein | Legumes (2 - 3) | Beans, nuts, tofu
Dairy and Eggs (2 - 3) (3 cups) | Not eaten | Milk, cheese, eggs, yogurt | * Milk, Eggs * cheese, yogurt | All
Meat, Poultry and Fish (2 - 3) (5½ oz) | Not eaten | Not eaten | Beef, lamb, tuna, salmon | All flesh (pork and shrimp)
Fats | Little | Nuts, Oil | Nuts, Oil (nut, grain and vegetable), butter | All, lard
Animal | Meat
--- | ---
Cow | Beef, veal
Sheep | Mutton, lamb
Deer | Venison
Pig | Pork, ham, bacon, sausage
Mixed | Pepperoni, bologna
The trend towards a low carbohydrate and high protein meat diet is not biblical. While we believe that refined flour and sugars are to be avoided, God designed our original diet to be high in carbohydrates from fresh fruits, vegetables and grain. All protein was from beans, grains and nuts. Meat was not eaten for almost 2000 years. After meat was introduced into the diet, the average age dropped from 700 years to 70 years!
Chef. Creates and cooks delicious meals Butcher. Cuts meat | Nutritionist. Analyzes food content Dietitian. Designs menus
Kwashiorkor. Protein deficiency Trichonosis. Worm infection from pork | Marasmus. Insufficient food Obesity. Excess body weight
Stove, Oven. Instrument for cooking food | Scale. Measures weight

Our wonderful bodies need regular maintenance to grow. We need energy which is stored in food. We need fresh air, water, rest, regular exercise and sunshine. The food pyramid is a guide that tells us what to eat.

Energy. We need carbohydrates to give our bodies energy.
Growth and Repair. Proteins are used to build muscles and repair the body.
Fiber. We need fibre to help to clean the digestive tract. We get this from fruits, beans and vegetables.
Rest. We need rest to restore our mental functions and to allow the body time to repair itself.
Sunshine and Fresh Air. Sunshine is good for creating Vitamin D in our bodies and for killing germs. It is also good for our mental health. Plants convert the energy from sunshine into food. Avoid the sun between the peak hours of 10:00 A.M. and 4:00 PM.
Exercise. We need at least sixty minutes of exercise every day to prevent weight gain.
Moderation (Temperance). Temperance is knowing how much to consume. Too much or too little can be deadly. Too much direct sunlight can damage the skin. Overeating can lead to obesity. Even too much water can cause water toxicity or leach minerals from the body.
Worship. We need to know God. Jesus said, "Man shall not live by bread alone but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God." (Matthew 4: 4)

Food Groups
These are the food groups:

1. Water (6 - 8 glasses).
2. Fruits (2 - 4) servings or 2 cups.
3. Vegetables (3-5 servings) or 2½ cups.
4. Carbohydrates (Grain, bread, cereal, rice and pasta) 6-11 servings or 6 oz. Use unprocessed, whole grain.
5. Protein (Milk, cheese and Yogurt) 2-3 servings or 3 cups.
   (Beans, nuts, eggs, and meat) 2-3 servings or 5½ oz.
6. Fats and oils. Eat as little as possible.

Chemical Reactions. Vitamins and minerals are needed by the body to perform important chemical reactions that will process the carbohydrates, proteins and fats. These are found in fresh fruits and vegetables. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluable and the rest are water soluable. Sunshine can also make Vitamin D through our skin.

Mineral | Atom | Function | Vegetarian Source
--- | --- | --- | ---
Calcium | Ca | Healthy bones and teeth, blood clotting. Makes enzymes and hormones that regulate digestion, energy and fat metabolism, and nerve transmission. | Dark green leafy Vegetable, Broccoli, Beans, Soy, Nuts, Seeds, dried Fruits, Sea vegetables, Calcium fortified tofu, orange juice and soymilk
Iron | Fe | Manufactures hemoglobin which transports oxygen in blood. Strengthen the immune system. | Dark green leafy Vegetables, Legumes, Nuts and Seeds, Blackstrap molasses, dried Fruits, sea vegetables, whole and enriched Grains
Zinc | Zn | Makes enzymes in the body. Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. Insulin, DNA and Prostate gland. Wound and burn healing. | Wheatgerm, Nuts, Almond nuts, Seeds, Pumpkin and Sunflower seeds, Beans, Mushrooms, whole Grain products
Magnesium | Mg | Similar function as calcium. | Nuts, Seeds, Beans and Peas, Avocados, Bananas, dark green leafy Vegetables, whole Grains, Soybeans
Potassium | K | Helps to balance and distribute fluids. Nerve transmission and cell membranes. Blood pressure, calcium balance and heartbeat. | Fruits, Figs, watermelon, cantaloupe, potatoes, vegetables, grains, Avocados, Bananas, Oranges, Beans and Peas, dried Fruits
Sodium | Na | Same as Potassium | Salt, Fresh fruits and Vegetables, Nuts
Phosphorous | P | Healthy bones and teeth. Growth and repair of cells. Nerve and muscle activity. Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats for energy. | Legumes, Soybeans, Nuts and Seeds, Wheatgerm, rice Bran, wheat Bran.
Boron | B | Essential for normal calcium and bone metabolism. | Fresh fruits and Vegetables, Nuts
Iodine | I | Thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, nerve and muscle. Healthy hair and skin | Iodized Salt, nutritional Yeast, sea Vegetables, Almonds, Mushrooms
Manganese | Mn | Formation of connective tissues, fats, cholesterol, bones, blood clotting factors and proteins. Metabolism of carbohydrates. | Spinach, tea, whole grain Breads, Raisins, Blueberries, Pineapple, Legumes, Nuts, dark green leafy Vegetables, dried Fruits
Selenium | Se | Antioxidant, protects against cancer and heart disease. Important for normal development of fetus during pregnancy. | All plant foods grown in selenium rich soil
Copper | Cu | Heart, arteries, blood vessels and skeletal system. Nerve transmission, red blood cell, normal hair and skin color. Carbohydrates, protein and fat metabolism | Unprocessed foods, whole Grains, dark green leafy Vegetables, Legumes
Chromium | Cr | Makes glucose tolerance factor, which maintains normal blood sugar levels. Stimulates protein synthesis | Nutritional yeast, whole grain Breads, Spices and Herbs

Minerals are actually atoms that the body uses.

Vitamins are complex compounds.

Vitamin | Name | Function | Vegetarian Source
--- | --- | --- | ---
A | Carotenoid, and retinol | Eyesight, night vision, bone formation, skin and teeth. | Dark green, dark yellow and orange vegetables, Carrot, Sweet potato, Colored fruits, Peach, Oranges, Apples.
B1 | Thiamin | All body cells, nerves. Improve reaction time and hand-eye coordination. Protein, carbohydrates and fat metabolism | Wheat germ, Nutritional yeast, beans and peas, Collard greens, Raisins, Oranges, Nuts, whole grains.
B2 | Riboflavin | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats for energy. Growth and development, hormones and red blood cells. | Dark green leafy vegetables, Avocado, Wheatgerm, Whole grains.
B3 | Niacin | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. Makes fats and hormones, red blood cells. Maintains cells. | Beans, peas, nuts, whole wheat and grains, potato, nutritional Yeast
B5 | Panthothenic acid | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. Production of fats, cholesterol, bile, vitamin D, red blood cells, some hormones and neurotransmitters. Builds body cells. | Legumes, Soybeans, Avocados, Mushrooms, green vegetables, Bananas, Oranges, Whole grains, wheatgerm
B6 | Pyridoxine | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. Makes red blood cells an enzymes. Maintains the nervous system and immune system. | Beans and peas, Nutritional Yeast, Wheatgerm, Nuts, Bananas, Avocados, Leafy green vegetables, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Potatoes, Whole grains, Dried fruit.
B9 | Folate (Folic Acid) | Maintains cells, pregnancy. Makes DNA, neurotransmitters that regulate mood, sleep and appetite. | Dark green leafy vegetables, Nutritional Yeast, Beans, Avocados, Wheatgerm, fruits, banana, Orange, Whole grains
B7 | Biotin | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. | Oatmeal, Nutritional yeast, Legumes, Soybeans, Mushrooms, bananas, Nuts, Whole grains
B12 | Cyanocobalamin | Metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats. Maintains the nervous system and all cells. | Nutritional yeast, Fortified foods and beverages, cereals, soymilk and orange juice.
C | Ascorbic acid | Makes collagen, strengthens connective tissues and immunity, promotes healing, healthy teeth, gums and bones. Antioxidant. | Fresh fruits and vegetables, Green pepper, Broccoli, Citrus fruits, Tomatoes, Guava, Strawberries
D | Sunshine Vitamin | Absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Aid in formation of bones, teeth, healthy nerve and muscle system. | Sunlight, Fortified foods and beverages
E | Tocopherol | Antioxidant. Protects body cells and tissues from damage, regulate use and storage of vitamin A. | Vegetable oils, Seeds, Nuts, Wheatgerm, Spinach, Peaches, Avocados, Broccoli, Dried prunes, Whole wheat
K | - | Blood clotting, promotes growth and healthy bones. | Green or leafy vegetables, Broccoli, Turnip greens, Cabbage, Cauliflowers, Avocados, oats, wheat, rye, and alfalfa
Essential Fatty Acids
Omega 3 | Linolenic acid | Normal functioning of all body tissues | Nuts, seeds, vegetables, beans and fruits; vegetable oils such as canola, flaxseed, soybean, walnut, and wheat germ
Omega 6 | Linoleic acid | Normal functioning of all body tissues | Nuts and seeds, sunflower seeds; vegetables oils such as black currant, borage, evening primrose, and hemp oils
Scurvy. Vitamin C deficiency causes bones to curve | Night Blindness. Vitamin A deficiency.
Rickets. Vitamin D deficiency causing soft bones | Beriberi. Thiamin deficiency.
Pellagra. Niacin (B3) and the amino acid tryptophan deficiency | Goiter. Iodine deficiency

Play a Nutrition Game. Analyze your diet here.
Dietary Style
People have different rules by which they prepare meals.

1. Fruitarian. Eats only fruit. Did you know that in God's original plan humans only ate fruits, grains, nuts, herbs and vegetables? The animals ate the herbs or vegetables. Nobody ate meat.
2. Vegetarian. Does no eat meat (this includes fish and chicken). There are two types of vegetarians.
   - Vegan. Does not eat any products that come from an animal, this includes eggs and milk and any products made from them (cheese and yogurt).
   - Ovo-lacto Vegetarian. Eats eggs and milk products.
3. Kosher. A vegetarian diet is always kosher. A non-vegetarian does not eat unclean meats such as pork, duck, shrimp and crab.
   Kosher rules do not allow the mixing of meat and milk or cheese in the same meal.
   Kosher rules are maintained by Jews and Christians who believe that the dietary laws of the Bible are still in effect, and some meats are clean while others are unclean and unfit for food.
4. Non Vegetarian. Eats any meat. In the past decade, a distinction had been made between white meat (fish and chicken) and red meat (beef).
   - Carnivore. Eats meat.
   - Omnivore. Eats anything.
   - Teenagers. Eat junk foods. Junk foods have little nutritional value and lots of fat and sugar. Fat and sugar have been linked to many diseases.

Water.
Our bodies are 75% water and our brain is 85% water. So we need to drink about 6 to 8 glasses per day. The rule is one quart of water (four glasses) for every 50 pounds of body weight. (One liter for every 22.68 kg). Water is best stored in glass containers. Plastic or metal might cause chemicals to contaminate the water.

Water | Source | Processing | Additives
--- | --- | --- | ---
Municipal Water (Government supplied)
Tap (Municipal) | Surface | Purification | Chlorine and fluoride
Fluoridated | Municipal | Purification | fluoride
Filtered | Municipal | Home filter | None
Water of life | God | No | None. Naturally pure.
Bottled Water
Bottled | Municipal | No | None
Artesian | Artesian well | No | None
Well | Well | No | None
Spring | Spring | No | None
Sparkling | Any | No | carbon dioxide equal to the source
Mineral | Any | No | Natural or added inorganic minerals
Purified (Demineralized) | Any | Purification | None
Distilled | Any | Distillation | None
Sterile Water | Any | Purification | None
Sodas
Club soda | Any | No | carbon dioxide, flavor
Seltzer | Spring | No | carbon dioxide
Tonic | Any | No | carbonated water with quinine and high fructose corn syrup
Dehydration. Lack of water | Water Toxicity. Too much water

There are many types of water. The definition depends on the source, original content, purification and the additives.

- Source.
  » Surface Water. Contaminated water, rivers, lakes and ponds.
  » Aquifer. Water from an underground source of water. The quality depends on its proximity to dirt, rocks and sand.
  Artesian Well. Aquifer is standing much higher than the rock gravel, or sand. The aquifer may also be in a contained space so that it does not mix with other pools of water.
  Artificial Well. An underground source that comes to the surface because of an artificial hole in the ground.
  Spring. An underground source that comes to the surface naturally.
- Supplier.
  » Municipal. Government purified, disinfected and delivered by pipes to the public. It is tested every day.
  » Bottled. The source of bottled water may be a city municipal supply or natural source. It may not be disinfected or purified. Usually, the source is approved and it is periodically tested around four times a year.
- Additives. Carbon dioxide, chlorine, fluoride, sugar, vitamins, fruit and inorganic minerals. You can only absorb 8-12% of the inorganic minerals if you are below 35 years old and only 3-5% if you are above 35 years old. So water may not be a good source of minerals.

  Emergency Water Purification
  Bleach. To purify water in the wild, add four drops of regular chlorine bleach to one quart of clear water. Let it stand for thirty minutes. Boiling. Heat clear water and let it boil for ten minutes. For higher elevations let it boil for one minute extra for each 1000 feet (300 meters). Iodine. Twelve drops for each gallon of water. Allow to stand for thirty minutes.
  These methods only kill some microbes and will not neutralize harmful chemicals.

- Purification. There are several methods of purification. One or more may be used on a particular product. In some water, minerals or carbon dioxide may be added back after it is purified. But depending on the type of water, the added ingredients must be the same amount as it naturally occurs at the source.
  - Activated Carbon Block Filter. Removes large particles like sands and rusts. This is usually the type found in homes.
  - Softener. Added chemical that removes pure calcium and magnesium by forming less active salts.
  - Reverse Osmosis. Removes heavy metals and some of the chemicals such as insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, and industrial solvents. Removes most radioactive minerals like strontium, plutonium, and chlorine, asbestos, selenium, mercury, hardened minerals, barium, nitrate, copper, lead. Biological germs like bacteria, viruses, and parasites are also removed.
  - Deionization. Removes nitrates, minerals (calcium, magnesium), and the heavy metals (cadmium, barium, lead, and some forms of radium).
  - Distilled. Heated to produce steam and condensed back into water. All impurities and minerals are removed.
  - Sterilization. Pure water heated to kill microorganisms and to remove chemicals.
  Some additives, like fluoride, may be useful. The consumption of too much purified water can increase the chance of tooth decay and leach other minerals from the body.

Healthy Habits. Stop drinking and smoking. Exercise. Walk.
Mental Health. Do not take illegal drugs. Be kind to others. Thinking only about yourself does not promote good mental health. Care for others without any thought of a reward. A good spiritual life will help you to bond with others in true love.
Limit your exposure to violence and fake reality. Turn off the television. Go walking, hiking, read a book, do puzzles, construct puzzles. Learn to write with both hands. Then try to draw with both hands. Learn to write with your feet.
Spiritual Health. This is the most important thing you should do. Pray to God, praise Him and thank Him every day as often as you can. From this relationship you will learn to love and that you are loved so much by God.

Nutrient or Matter Life Cycles. Several important elements are needed to preserve life and they undergo several processes that recycle them. Notice that the sun plays a critical role in many processes.

- Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle).
  - Evaporation. The sun heats up water in seas, rivers and lakes and turns it into steam which rises up in the air.
    » Transpiration. Plants lose water through their leaves.

    Sun | Condensation | Clouds
    --- | --- | ---
    Evaporation Transpiration | Water Cycle | Precipitation
    Sea | Collection | Rain

  - Condensation. Water vapor gets cold and changes back to liquid, forming clouds.
  - Precipitation. Clouds get too heavy and fall. Pure water returns to the earth as rain, snow, ice.
    » Infiltration. Rain sinks into the earth and becomes ground water.
  - Collection. Rain water collects in ground water, lakes, and in rivers which run to the sea.

  - | CO2 | Sun
  --- | --- | ---
  Respiration | Carbon Cycle | Photosynthesis
  Fossil Fuel Decay | Organic Carbon

- Carbon Cycle. It is the fourth most abundant element. 18% of living organisms is composed of carbon, while the earth has 0.19%. Carbon exists in the earth as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonate (CaCO3), coal, dead organic matter.
  - Photosynthesis. Plants use light energy to convert carbon to organic matter.
  - Respiration. Carbon is returned through respiration, burning and decay.
- Oxygen Cycle. Oxygen, Organic Matter Respiration CO2, water, energy

  Sun O2 | Atmospheric Oxygen
  --- | ---
  Photosynthesis | Oxygen Cycle | Respiration
  CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) | CO2

  - Photosynthesis. Plants take in CO2 and release oxygen into the air.
    » Dissolve. Oxygen easily dissolves in water when it is churned up by rapids and water falls.
  - Respiration and Decay. Animals breathe in oxygen (O2) and exhale carbon dioxide (CO2)

  N2 | N2 | Industry | Microbes
  --- | --- | --- | ---
  | Lightning |
  Nitrates NO3- | Nitrogen Cycle | Nitrogen Fixation Plant Protein
  Nitrites NO2- | NH3 Decay | Animal Protein

- Nitrogen Cycle. Animals get their nitrogen from plants or other animals. Plants only use nitrogen in the form of nitrates (NO3), ammonia (NH3) or urea (NH2)2CO.
  - Nitrogen Fixation. Nitrogen can be changed by three processes:
    - Lightning. Combines nitrogen and oxygen.
    - Microbes.
    - Industry. Produces ammonia, urea and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) for fertilizer.
  - Decay. Protein and plant material decay and produce ammonia.
    » Ingestion. Animals eat the plants and make proteins.
  - Nitrification. Bacteria convert ammonia to nitrites (NO2)- and other bacteria convert nitrites to nitrates (NO3-). These are available to the roots of plants.
  - Denitrification. Anaerobic bacteria change nitrates to nitrogen gas (N2) in their respiration.

  H2S SO2 | H2SO4 | Water
  --- | --- | ---
  Industry | Volcano | Sulphur Cycle | SO4 | Acid Rain
  Decay | Plant | (NH4)2SO4

- Sulphur (Sulfur) Cycle. Sulphur is present in amino acids, proteins and vitamins.
  - Decay. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is released when plants and animals decay and by industrial processes. It forms sulfur dioxide. Volcanic eruptions produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) directly.
  - Precipitation. Sulfur dioxide forms sulfuric acid and falls as acid rain.
  - Absorbtion. Plants absorb Sulphur dissolved in water and make proteins.
  - Ingestion. Animals eat the plant proteins

  Ocean Sediment, Guano, Rocks
  Organic Phosphorus Decay, Manure | Phosphorus Cycle | Weathering Phosphate
  --- | --- | ---
  Plants (HPO4-2 H2PO4-1) | Soil, Water | Run Off

- Phosphorus Cycle. Phosphorus is found in bone, teeth, fats, DNA, ATP and ADP. It is not found in the air in a gaseous state.
  - Weathering. This process removes phosphorus from rocks. This inorganic phosphorous dissolves in water.
  - Absorbtion. Plants eat dissolved inorganic phosphorous and make organic phosphorous which is eaten by animals.
  - Decay. When they die the phosphorous sinks to the bottom and becomes sediment. Microbes change organic phosphorus from decaying plant material and manure into inorganic phosphorus.

  Sun | Photovoltaic cell | Electrolysis
  --- | --- | ---
  H2O | Hydrogen Cycle | O2 | O2 | H2
  Electricity (Energy) | Hydrolysis | Hydrogen Storage

- Hydrogen Cycle. Hydrogen makes up 90% of the matter in the known universe. Oxygen burns hydrogen in living matter to produce energy
  - Electrolysis. Water is split into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity from solar energy. This releases oxygen into the air and stores hydrogen.
  - Hydrogen Storage. Hydrogen is stored in a battery or fuel cell. In the body, the storage factory is the mitochondria and the hydrogen is stored in a battery called Adenosine TriPhosphate (ATP).
  - Hydrolysis (Combustion). Oxygen is recombined with the stored hydrogen to produce water and electricity or other forms of energy.

Doomsday Scenarios
Finally, this would not be complete without a scientific analysis of possible doomsday events. This list was taken from a two hour documentary on the History Channel called "Last Days on Earth".

Source | # | Event | Description
--- | --- | --- | ---
Human Activity | 1 | Planetary Climate Shift | The temperature and climate are being affected by green house gases causing global warming, glacier melting, rise in sea level and sea temperature and stronger hurricanes. Warmer temperatures also melt frozen methyl hydrates, releasing methane gas which is 26 times more powerful than carbon dioxide as a green house gas
2 | Plague | A pandemic caused by a deadly pathogen like H5N1, small pox, ebola or a reengineered germ that is used as a biological weapon
3 | Atomic Weapon | A nuclear bomb
Earth | 4 | Supervolcano | A major eruption of a supervolcano could destroy a continent and plunge us into a state of nuclear winter
Outer Space | 5 | Asteroid | A cosmic bus crash. A large one could destroy the earth. Apophis will approach earth below the height of our communications satellites on April 13, 2029 and 2036
6 | Renegade Black Hole | A giant cosmic vacuum cleaner. In 2000, scientists discovered that black holes can wander around aimlessly. A renegade black hole would suck up and devour our planet
7 | Gamma Ray Bursts | Nuclear gamma radiation bursts occur about once per day. They are caused by the final collapse of a star. If one explodes close to earth it could kill all biological life in one month

While the Bible does say that we will be destroying the earth when Christ comes and that we will be terrified by events approaching from the heavens, we are guaranteed that there will be people here when He comes. So the earth will never be totally destroyed by any of the above doomsday devices.

Caring For The Earth.

Conflict Diamonds
Conflict diamonds or blood stones get their name because of the exploitation of workers, families and children. More than half of the world's diamonds are cut and polished by child slave laborers. They are used to fund civil wars. Children are used as soldiers, slave workers and prostitutes. The all male work rules in the camps discourage families and encourage prostitution. So AIDS is rampant among the diamond mines. God says that it is your responsibility to care.
Source: The Ultimate Field Guide to the U.S. Economy. URL: www.fguide.org

You can care for the earth and its people by doing several things:

1. Recycle.
2. Walk, use bicycles or use public transportation. This reduces the amount of fossil fuels in the air.
3. Conserve water.
4. Do not litter.
5. Plant gardens.
6. Reduce the number of harmful chemicals going into the atmosphere.
7. Take care of national parks and forests. They are our lungs.
8. Do not buy products that hurt other people and animals. Some endangered animals are killed for their horns, skins and bones. Some people are enslaved or severely underpaid to work in diamond mines.
9. Care for the people and creatures of the earth.
   We are all children of God. All of us were descended from Adam and Eve. Blond hair, dark hair, straight or curly. Black skin, brown or white. We all have the same original parents. Since the laws of genetics make it impossible for different species to have children, no human beings were descended from monkeys. Just as all colors can come from one set of parents, all features can come from one set of parents.

   Middle Brown Parent Genes | Mother
   --- | ---
   MaMb | Mamb | maMb | mamb
   Father | MaMb | MaMb MaMb | Mamb MaMb | maMb MaMb | mamb MaMb
   Mamb | MaMb Mamb | Mamb Mamb | maMb Mamb | mamb Mamb
   maMb | MaMb maMb | Mamb maMb | maMb maMb | mamb maMb
   mamb | MaMb mamb | Mamb mamb | maMb mamb | mamb mamb
   One set of brown parents can produce all colors Source: christiananswers.net/q-aig/race-skincolor.html
   Albino. Lack of skin color due to loss of melanin
   Down's Syndrome. Excess chromosome 21 changes physical appearance

   > Modern genetics shows that when a large, freely interbreeding group is suddenly broken into many smaller groups which from then on breed only among themselves (as the Biblical description of the language dispersion at Babel would imply), different racial characteristics will arise very rapidly. It can be shown that one pair of middle-brown parents could produce all known shades of color, from very white to very black, in one generation. The racial characteristics which exist today have not evolved, and generally speaking, are simply different combinations of pre-existing (created) genetic (hereditary) information. The environment plays a secondary role in favoring certain combinations over others.

   Environment does not change our genes. It may cause those with certain characteristics to move to a more favorable environment.
   Skin color is essentially the only biological difference in race, and science has been unable to determine all the causes of "race". Melanin is one chemical that affects color. People with dark skin have more melanin and light skin have less.
10. Care for the God who made them all.

Imagine | Since we are all descended from Adam and Eve, what do you think they looked like? The word Adam means red dirt. Is that a clue?

What Do You Think? | If God does something different on Sabbath that He does not do on other days, then we may be able to detect this activity. On Sabbath the creation rests. God might bring a spark of energy that rejuvenates those at rest. It could work like a wave that synchronizes with those at rest (same frequency) but interferes with the waves of those at work. Resting on another day can never capture this scheduled burst of energy. This periodic boost may be part of the system of derived eternal life.

Thank You
How awesome is our creator God! Thanks for coming to our Web site.

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. (Genesis 1: 1) | Time: 500 minutes Print: 97 pages
Copyright Updated : October 2007 Credits: All images, except the lungs, were created by Laverna Patterson and are the property of teachinghearts.org Laverna Patterson. B.S. Biochemistry. Columbia Union College (1982). USGS article on volcanoes. URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html Tornado information from NOAA. URL: http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/tornado/ http://www.worldatlas.com/geoquiz/thelist.htm - Geographical measurements. http://www.astronomysight.com/as/welcome.html - The name of the moons. http://www.vegetarian-society.org - vitamins and minerals http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/weatherbasics/clouds/shtml - Clouds http://www.whyquit.com - for smoking information. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid - Encyclopedia http://www.abbysenior.com/biology/Default.htm - Body systems http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/reproduc.htm http://www.starryskies.com/The_sky/constellations/index.html - The best star charts http://library.wolfram.com/webMathematica/Astronomy/StarChart.jsp - Creates dynamic star charts http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/9111/DOC.HTML - Acid rain http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/site_kids/games.htm - Acid rain for children http://www.home.cio.net/timo/man/ - The origin of nations http://www.christiananswers.net/q-aig/race-skincolor.html - Skin color http://www.mypyramid.gov - The 2005 food pyramid http://mypage.direct.ca/c/csamson/multiples.html - (Facts About Multiples) http://www.howstuffworks.com/ - How Stuff Works. http://gulfnews.com/news/world/other-world/great-barrier-reef-coral-has-halved-in-27-years-1.1083939 Great Barrier Reef coral Has halved in 27 years. 2 October 2012.